Hydrogen Fuel
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What is Hydrogen?

Hydrogen is the simplest and most common element in the universe. It has the highest energy content per unit of weight—52,000 British Thermal Units (Btu) per pound (or 120.7 kilojoules per gram)—of any known fuel. Moreover, when cooled to a liquid state, this low-weight fuel takes up 1/700 as much space as it does in its gaseous state. This is one reason hydrogen is used as a fuel for rocket and spacecraft propulsion, which requires fuel that is low-weight, compact, and has a high energy content.
 

Hydrogen Fuel
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More about Hydrogen

In a free state and under normal conditions, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas. The basic hydrogen (H) molecule exists as two atoms bound together by shared electrons. Each atom is composed of one proton and one orbiting electron. Since hydrogen is about 1/14 as dense as air, some scientists believe it to be the source of all other elements through the process of nuclear fusion. It usually exists in combination with other elements, such as oxygen in water, carbon in methane, and in trace elements as organic compounds. Because it is so chemically active, it rarely stands alone as an element. 

When burned (or combined) with pure oxygen, the only by products are heat and water. When burned (or combined) with air, which is about 68% nitrogen, some oxides of nitrogen (Nitrogen Oxides or NOx) are formed. Even then, burning hydrogen produces less air pollutants relative to fossil fuels. 

Producing HydrogenHydrogen bound in organic matter and in water makes up 70% of the earth's surface. Breaking up these bonds in water allows us produce hydrogen and then to use it as a fuel. There are numerous processes that can be used to break these bonds. Described below are a few methods for producing hydrogen that are currently used, or are under research and development. 

Most of the hydrogen now produced in the United States is on an industrial scale by the process of steam reforming, or as a byproduct of petroleum refining and chemicals production. Steam reforming uses thermal energy to separate hydrogen from the carbon components in methane and methanol, and involves the reaction of these fuels with steam on catalytic surfaces. The first step of the reaction decomposes the fuel into hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Then a "shift reaction" changes the carbon monoxide and water to carbon dioxide and hydrogen. These reactions occur at temperatures of 392° F (200 ° C) or greater. 

Another way to produce hydrogen is by electrolysis. Electrolysis separates the elements of water—H and oxygen (O)—by charging water with an electrical current. Adding an electrolyte such as salt improves the conductivity of the water and increases the efficiency of the process. The charge breaks the chemical bond between the hydrogen and oxygen and splits apart the atomic components, creating charged particles called ions. The ions form at two poles: the anode, which is positively charged, and the cathode, which is negatively charged. Hydrogen gathers at the cathode and the anode attracts oxygen. A voltage of 1.24 Volts is necessary to separate hydrogen from oxygen in pure water at 77° Fahrenheit (F) and 14.7 pounds per square inch pressure [25° Celsius (C) and 1.03 kilograms (kg) per centimeter squared.] This voltage requirement increases or decreases with changes in temperature and pressure. 

The smallest amount of electricity necessary to electrolyze one mole of water is 65.3 Watt-hours (at 77° F; 25 degrees C). Producing one cubit foot of hydrogen requires 0.14 kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electricity (or 4.8 kWh per cubic meter). 

Renewable energy sources can produce electricity for electrolysis. For example, Humboldt State University's Schatz Energy Research Center designed and built a stand-alone solar hydrogen system. The system uses a 9.2 kilowatt (KW) photovoltaic (PV) array to provide power to compressors that aerate fish tanks. The power not used to run the compressors runs a 7.2 kilowatt bipolar alkaline electrolyzer. The electrolyzer can produce 53 standard cubic feet of hydrogen per hour (25 liters per minute). The unit has been operating without supervision since 1993. When there is not enough power from the PV array, the hydrogen provides fuel for a 1.5 kilowatt proton exchange membrane fuel cell to provide power for the compressors. 

Steam electrolysis is a variation of the conventional electrolysis process. Some of the energy needed to split the water is added as heat instead of electricity, making the process more efficient than conventional electrolysis. At 2,500 degrees Celsius water decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen. This heat could be provided by a concentrating solar energy device. The problem here is to prevent the hydrogen and oxygen from recombining at the high temperatures used in the process. 

Thermochemical water splitting uses chemicals such as bromine or iodine, assisted by heat. This causes the water molecule to split. It takes several steps—usually three—to accomplish this entire process. 

Photoelectrochemical processes use two types of electrochemical systems to produce hydrogen. One uses soluble metal complexes as a catalyst, while the other uses semiconductor surfaces. When the soluble metal complex dissolves, the complex absorbs solar energy and produces an electrical charge that drives the water splitting reaction. This process mimics photosynthesis. 

The other method uses semiconducting electrodes in a photochemical cell to convert optical energy into chemical energy. The semiconductor surface serves two functions, to absorb solar energy and to act as an electrode. Light-induced corrosion limits the useful life of the semiconductor. 

Researchers at the University of Tennessee and U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) Oak Ridge National Laboratory are researching ways to use photosynthesis to produce hydrogen from sunlight. The researchers extracted two photosynthetic complexes from spinach plants; called Photosystem I and Photosystem II. The two work together to produce carbohydrates for the plant. By attaching platinum atoms to the Photosystem I complexes, the researchers were able to produce hydrogen from visible light. Unfortunately, the process required the use of an added chemical that makes the overall process impractical, but the achievement shows potential. The researchers are working to combine the platinum-Photosystem I complexes with the Photosystem II complexes, forming a molecular system that can convert light and water directly into hydrogen, without help from an added chemical. 

Biological and photobiological processes can use algae and bacteria to produce hydrogen. Under specific conditions, the pigments in certain types of algae absorb solar energy. The enzyme in the cell acts as a catalyst to split the water molecules. Some bacteria are also capable of producing hydrogen, but unlike algae they require a substrate to grow on. The organisms not only produce hydrogen, but can clean up pollution as well. 

Research funded by DOE has led to the discovery of a mechanism to produce significant quantities of hydrogen from algae. Scientists have known for decades that algae produce trace amounts of hydrogen, but had not found a feasible method to increase the production of hydrogen. Scientists from the University of California (UC), Berkeley, and the U.S. DOE's National Renewable Energy Laboratory found the key. After allowing the algae culture to grow under normal conditions, the research team deprived it of both sulfur and oxygen, causing it to switch to an alternate metabolism that generates hydrogen. After several days of generating hydrogen, the algae culture was returned to normal conditions for a few days, allowing it to store up more energy. The process could be repeated many times. Producing hydrogen from algae could eventually provide a cost-effective and practical means to convert sunlight into hydrogen. 

Another source of hydrogen produced through natural processes is methane and ethanol. Methane (CH4) is a component of "biogas" that is produced by anaerobic bacteria. Anaerobic bacteria occur widely throughout the environment. They break down or "digest" organic material in the absence of oxygen and produce biogas as a waste product. Sources of biogas include landfills, and livestock waste and municipal sewage treatment facilities. Methane is also the principal component of "natural gas" (a major heating and power plant fuel) produced by anaerobic bacteria eons ago. Ethanol is produced by the fermentation of biomass. Most fuel ethanol produced in the United States is made from corn. 

Chemical engineers at the University of Wisconsin-Madison have developed a process to produce hydrogen from glucose, a sugar produced by many plants. The process shows particular promise because it occurs at relatively low temperatures, and can produce fuel-cell-grade hydrogen in a single step. Glucose is manufactured in vast quantities from corn starch, but can also be derived from sugar beets or low-cost waste streams like paper mill sludge, cheese whey, corn stover or wood waste. 

The United States, Japan, Canada, and France have investigated thermal water splitting, a radically different approach to creating hydrogen. This process uses heat of up to 5,430°F (3,000°C) to split water molecules. 

Potential Uses for Hydrogen

When properly stored, hydrogen as a fuel burns in either a gaseous or liquid state. Motor vehicles and furnaces can be converted to use hydrogen as a fuel. Hydrogen has actually been used in the transportation, industrial, and residential sectors in the United States for many years. Many people in the late 19th century burned a fuel called "town gas," which is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Several countries, including Brazil and Germany, still distribute this fuel. Hydrogen was used in early "hot-air" balloons, and later in airships (dirigibles) during the early 1900's. Gaseous hydrogen was used in 1820 as fuel for one of the earliest internal combustion engines. The U.S. Air Force had a secret, multi-million dollar program during the 1950's, code-named "Suntan," to develop hydrogen as a fuel for airplanes. Currently, industries use large quantities of hydrogen for refining petroleum, and for producing ammonia and methanol. The Space Shuttle uses hydrogen as fuel for its rockets. Automobile manufacturers have developed hydrogen-powered cars. 

Burning hydrogen creates less air pollution than gasoline or diesel. Hydrogen also has a higher flame speed, wider flammability limits, higher detonation temperature, burns hotter, and takes less energy to ignite than gasoline. This means that hydrogen burns faster, but carries the danger of pre-ignition and flashback. While hydrogen has its advantages as a vehicle fuel it still has a long way to go before it can be used as a substitute for gasoline. This is mainly due to the investment required to develop a hydrogen production and distribution infrastructure. 

However, things are getting started in this regard. Vehicle manufacturers Honda and BMW have set up hydrogen fueling stations as part of their efforts to develop fuel cell powered cars. At Honda's research and development center in Torrance, California, a PV array electrolyses hydrogen from water. The array generates enough hydrogen to power one fuel-cell vehicle. Additional power from the power grid is used to increase the hydrogen production capacity. The new station is supporting Honda's fuel cell vehicle development program for hydrogen production, storage, and fueling. Honda and a fuel cell developer are also working together on a "home" hydrogen refueling system for fuel cell vehicles. BMW opened a hydrogen fueling station at the company's engineering and emissions control test center in Oxnard, California. BMW is taking a different approach than most car companies, burning hydrogen directly in advanced internal-combustion engines, and is testing these vehicles at the Oxnard facility. 

The California Fuel Cell Partnership (CaFCP) is also building a hydrogen infrastructure. The CaFCP commissioned its first "satellite" hydrogen fueling system in late October 2002, in Richmond, California, about 70 miles from the CaFCP headquarters and a primary refueling facility in West Sacramento. This extends the range over which the CaFCP's prototype fuel cell vehicles can be driven. The fueling system uses electrolysis to generate hydrogen from water and includes a storage unit capable of holding 104 pounds (47 kilograms) of hydrogen. It is capable of fueling a small fleet of vehicles and requires only one or two minutes per refueling. 

In November 2002, the world's first hydrogen energy station that can provide fuel for vehicles and also produce electricity opened in Las Vegas Nevada. The station is located in the city's vehicle maintenance and operation service center. It combines an on-site hydrogen generator, compressor, liquid and gaseous hydrogen storage tanks, dispensing systems, and a stationary fuel cell. It is capable of dispensing hydrogen, hydrogen-enriched natural gas, and compressed natural gas. DOE is also working with the city to convert municipal vehicles to operate on hydrogen. 

Fuel cells are a type of technology that use hydrogen to produce useful energy. In fuel cells, electrolysis is reversed by combining hydrogen and oxygen through an electrochemical process, which produces electricity, heat, and water. The U.S. space program has used fuel cells to power spacecraft for decades. Fuel cells capable of powering automobiles and buses have been and are being developed. Several companies are developing fuel cells for stationary power generation. Most major automobile manufacturers are developing fuel cell powered automobiles. 

Hydrogen could be considered a way to store energy produced from renewable resources such as solar, wind, biomass, hydro, and geothermal. For example, when the sun is shining, solar photovoltaic systems can provide the electricity needed to separate the hydrogen (as described above regarding Humboldt State University's Research Center). The hydrogen could then be stored and burned as fuel, or to operate a fuel cell to generate electricity at night or during cloudy periods. 

Storing Hydrogen

In order to use hydrogen on a large scale, safe, practical storage systems must be developed, especially for automobiles. Although hydrogen can be stored as a liquid, it is a difficult process because the hydrogen must be cooled to -423° Fahrenheit (-253° Celsius). Refrigerating hydrogen to this temperature uses the equivalent of 25% to 30% of its energy content, and requires special materials and handling. To cool one pound (0.45 kg) of hydrogen requires 5 kWh of electrical energy. 

Hydrogen may also be stored as a gas, which uses less energy than making liquid hydrogen. As a gas, it must be pressurized to store any appreciable amount. For large-scale use, pressurized Hydrogen gas could be stored in caverns, gas fields, and mines. The hydrogen gas could then be piped into individual homes in the same way as natural gas. Though this means of storage is feasible for heating, it is not practical for transportation because the pressurized metal tanks used for storing hydrogen gas for transportation are very expensive. 

A potentially more efficient method of storing hydrogen is in hydrides. Hydrides are chemical compounds of hydrogen and other materials. Research is currently being conducted on magnesium hydrides. Certain metal alloys such as magnesium nickel, magnesium copper, and iron titanium compounds, absorb hydrogen and release it when heated. Hydrides, however, store little energy per unit weight. Current research aims to produce a compound that will carry a significant amount of hydrogen with a high energy density, release the hydrogen as a fuel, react quickly, and be cost-effective. 

A company in Utah, Power Ball Technologies, has developed a process in which sodium metal is pelletized and encapsulated with polyethylene plastic. The pellets can then be containerized, transported, and then opened in a patented hydrogen generator to produce hydrogen gas. According to the company, each gallon of these pellets is capable of producing 1,307 gallons of hydrogen gas, which is an equivalent hydrogen storage density more than 7 times greater by volume than a compressed hydrogen tank storing hydrogen at 3,000 psi. 

The Cost of Hydrogen

Currently the most cost-effective way to produce hydrogen is steam reforming. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, in 1995 the cost was $7.39 per million Btu ($7.00 per gigajoule) in large plant production. This assumes a cost for natural gas of $2.43 per million Btu ($2.30 per gigajoule). This is the equivalent of $0.93 per gallon ($0.24 per liter) of gasoline. The production of hydrogen by electrolysis using hydroelectricity at off peak rates costs between $10.55 to $21.10 per million Btu ($10.00 to $20.00 per gigajoule). 

Hydrogen Research in the United States

Recognizing the potential for hydrogen fuel, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and private organizations have funded research and development (R&D) programs for several years. DOE has a major effort to develop hydrogen as a major fuel within the next few decades. 

* Some of the above information from the Department of Energy website with permission.

What are Hydrogen Fuel Cells?

Hydrogen's potential use in fuel and energy applications includes powering vehicles, running turbines or fuel cells to produce electricity, and generating heat and electricity for buildings. The current focus is on hydrogen's use in fuel cells.

 

A fuel cell works like a battery but does not run down or need recharging. It will produce electricity and heat as long as fuel (hydrogen) is supplied. A fuel cell consists of two electrodes—a negative electrode (or anode) and a positive electrode (or cathode)—sandwiched around an electrolyte. Hydrogen is fed to the anode, and oxygen is fed to the cathode. Activated by a catalyst, hydrogen atoms separate into protons and electrons, which take different paths to the cathode. The electrons go through an external circuit, creating a flow of electricity. The protons migrate through the electrolyte to the cathode, where they reunite with oxygen and the electrons to produce water and heat. Fuel cells can be used to power vehicles or to provide electricity and heat to buildings. 

The primary fuel cell technologies under development are: 

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells

A phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) consists of an anode and a cathode made of a finely dispersed platinum catalyst on carbon paper, and a silicon carbide matrix that holds the phosphoric acid electrolyte. This is the most commercially developed type of fuel cell and is being used in hotels, hospitals, and office buildings. The phosphoric acid fuel cell can also be used in large vehicles, such as buses. 

Proton-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells

The proton-exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell uses a fluorocarbon ion exchange with a polymeric membrane as the electrolyte. The PEM cell appears to be more adaptable to automobile use than the PAFC type of cell. These cells operate at relatively low temperatures and can vary their output to meet shifting power demands. These cells are the best candidates for light-duty vehicles, for buildings, and much smaller applications. 

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) currently under development use a thin layer of zirconium oxide as a solid ceramic electrolyte, and include a lanthanum manganate cathode and a nickel-zirconia anode. This is a promising option for high-powered applications, such as industrial uses or central electricity generating stations. 

Direct-Methanol Fuel Cells

A relatively new member of the fuel-cell family, the direct-methanol fuel cell (DMFC) is similar to the PEM cell in that it uses a polymer membrane as an electrolyte. However, a catalyst on the DMFC anode draws hydrogen from liquid methanol, eliminating the need for a fuel reformer. 

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells

The molten carbonate fuel cell uses a molten carbonate salt as the electrolyte. It has the potential to be fueled with coal-derived fuel gases or natural gas. 

Alkaline Fuel Cells

The alkaline fuel cell uses an alkaline electrolyte such as potassium hydroxide. Originally used by NASA on space missions, it is now finding applications in hydrogen-powered vehicles. 

Regenerative Fuel Cells

This special class of fuel cells produces electricity from hydrogen and oxygen, but can be reversed and powered with electricity to produce hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen Fuel
Since the early 19th century, scientists have recognized hydrogen as a potential source of fuel. Current uses of hydrogen are in industrial processes, rocket fuel, and spacecraft propulsion. With further research and development, this fuel could also serve as an alternative source of energy for heating and lighting homes, generating electricity, and fueling motor vehicles. When produced from renewable resources and technologies, such as hydro, solar, and wind energy, hydrogen becomes a renewable fuel. 

What is Hydrogen?

Hydrogen is the simplest and most common element in the universe. It has the highest energy content per unit of weight—52,000 British Thermal Units (Btu) per pound (or 120.7 kilojoules per gram)—of any known fuel. Moreover, when cooled to a liquid state, this low-weight fuel takes up 1/700 as much space as it does in its gaseous state. This is one reason hydrogen is used as a fuel for rocket and spacecraft propulsion, which requires fuel that is low-weight, compact, and has a high energy content. 

In a free state and under normal conditions, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas. The basic hydrogen (H) molecule exists as two atoms bound together by shared electrons. Each atom is composed of one proton and one orbiting electron. Since hydrogen is about 1/14 as dense as air, some scientists believe it to be the source of all other elements through the process of nuclear fusion. It usually exists in combination with other elements, such as oxygen in water, carbon in methane, and in trace elements as organic compounds. Because it is so chemically active, it rarely stands alone as an element. 

When burned (or combined) with pure oxygen, the only by products are heat and water. When burned (or combined) with air, which is about 68% nitrogen, some oxides of nitrogen (Nitrogen Oxides or NOx) are formed. Even then, burning hydrogen produces less air pollutants relative to fossil fuels. 

Producing HydrogenHydrogen bound in organic matter and in water makes up 70% of the earth's surface. Breaking up these bonds in water allows us produce hydrogen and then to use it as a fuel. There are numerous processes that can be used to break these bonds. Described below are a few methods for producing hydrogen that are currently used, or are under research and development. 

Most of the hydrogen now produced in the United States is on an industrial scale by the process of steam reforming, or as a byproduct of petroleum refining and chemicals production. Steam reforming uses thermal energy to separate hydrogen from the carbon components in methane and methanol, and involves the reaction of these fuels with steam on catalytic surfaces. The first step of the reaction decomposes the fuel into hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Then a "shift reaction" changes the carbon monoxide and water to carbon dioxide and hydrogen. These reactions occur at temperatures of 392° F (200 ° C) or greater. 

Another way to produce hydrogen is by electrolysis. Electrolysis separates the elements of water—H and oxygen (O)—by charging water with an electrical current. Adding an electrolyte such as salt improves the conductivity of the water and increases the efficiency of the process. The charge breaks the chemical bond between the hydrogen and oxygen and splits apart the atomic components, creating charged particles called ions. The ions form at two poles: the anode, which is positively charged, and the cathode, which is negatively charged. Hydrogen gathers at the cathode and the anode attracts oxygen. A voltage of 1.24 Volts is necessary to separate hydrogen from oxygen in pure water at 77° Fahrenheit (F) and 14.7 pounds per square inch pressure [25° Celsius (C) and 1.03 kilograms (kg) per centimeter squared.] This voltage requirement increases or decreases with changes in temperature and pressure. 

The smallest amount of electricity necessary to electrolyze one mole of water is 65.3 Watt-hours (at 77° F; 25 degrees C). Producing one cubit foot of hydrogen requires 0.14 kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electricity (or 4.8 kWh per cubic meter). 

Renewable energy sources can produce electricity for electrolysis. For example, Humboldt State University's Schatz Energy Research Center designed and built a stand-alone solar hydrogen system. The system uses a 9.2 kilowatt (KW) photovoltaic (PV) array to provide power to compressors that aerate fish tanks. The power not used to run the compressors runs a 7.2 kilowatt bipolar alkaline electrolyzer. The electrolyzer can produce 53 standard cubic feet of hydrogen per hour (25 liters per minute). The unit has been operating without supervision since 1993. When there is not enough power from the PV array, the hydrogen provides fuel for a 1.5 kilowatt proton exchange membrane fuel cell to provide power for the compressors. 

Steam electrolysis is a variation of the conventional electrolysis process. Some of the energy needed to split the water is added as heat instead of electricity, making the process more efficient than conventional electrolysis. At 2,500 degrees Celsius water decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen. This heat could be provided by a concentrating solar energy device. The problem here is to prevent the hydrogen and oxygen from recombining at the high temperatures used in the process. 

Thermochemical water splitting uses chemicals such as bromine or iodine, assisted by heat. This causes the water molecule to split. It takes several steps—usually three—to accomplish this entire process. 

Photoelectrochemical processes use two types of electrochemical systems to produce hydrogen. One uses soluble metal complexes as a catalyst, while the other uses semiconductor surfaces. When the soluble metal complex dissolves, the complex absorbs solar energy and produces an electrical charge that drives the water splitting reaction. This process mimics photosynthesis. 

The other method uses semiconducting electrodes in a photochemical cell to convert optical energy into chemical energy. The semiconductor surface serves two functions, to absorb solar energy and to act as an electrode. Light-induced corrosion limits the useful life of the semiconductor. 

Researchers at the University of Tennessee and U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) Oak Ridge National Laboratory are researching ways to use photosynthesis to produce hydrogen from sunlight. The researchers extracted two photosynthetic complexes from spinach plants; called Photosystem I and Photosystem II. The two work together to produce carbohydrates for the plant. By attaching platinum atoms to the Photosystem I complexes, the researchers were able to produce hydrogen from visible light. Unfortunately, the process required the use of an added chemical that makes the overall process impractical, but the achievement shows potential. The researchers are working to combine the platinum-Photosystem I complexes with the Photosystem II complexes, forming a molecular system that can convert light and water directly into hydrogen, without help from an added chemical. 

Biological and photobiological processes can use algae and bacteria to produce hydrogen. Under specific conditions, the pigments in certain types of algae absorb solar energy. The enzyme in the cell acts as a catalyst to split the water molecules. Some bacteria are also capable of producing hydrogen, but unlike algae they require a substrate to grow on. The organisms not only produce hydrogen, but can clean up pollution as well. 

Research funded by DOE has led to the discovery of a mechanism to produce significant quantities of hydrogen from algae. Scientists have known for decades that algae produce trace amounts of hydrogen, but had not found a feasible method to increase the production of hydrogen. Scientists from the University of California (UC), Berkeley, and the U.S. DOE's National Renewable Energy Laboratory found the key. After allowing the algae culture to grow under normal conditions, the research team deprived it of both sulfur and oxygen, causing it to switch to an alternate metabolism that generates hydrogen. After several days of generating hydrogen, the algae culture was returned to normal conditions for a few days, allowing it to store up more energy. The process could be repeated many times. Producing hydrogen from algae could eventually provide a cost-effective and practical means to convert sunlight into hydrogen. 

Another source of hydrogen produced through natural processes is methane and ethanol. Methane (CH4) is a component of "biogas" that is produced by anaerobic bacteria. Anaerobic bacteria occur widely throughout the environment. They break down or "digest" organic material in the absence of oxygen and produce biogas as a waste product. Sources of biogas include landfills, and livestock waste and municipal sewage treatment facilities. Methane is also the principal component of "natural gas" (a major heating and power plant fuel) produced by anaerobic bacteria eons ago. Ethanol is produced by the fermentation of biomass. Most fuel ethanol produced in the United States is made from corn. 

Chemical engineers at the University of Wisconsin-Madison have developed a process to produce hydrogen from glucose, a sugar produced by many plants. The process shows particular promise because it occurs at relatively low temperatures, and can produce fuel-cell-grade hydrogen in a single step. Glucose is manufactured in vast quantities from corn starch, but can also be derived from sugar beets or low-cost waste streams like paper mill sludge, cheese whey, corn stover or wood waste. 

The United States, Japan, Canada, and France have investigated thermal water splitting, a radically different approach to creating hydrogen. This process uses heat of up to 5,430°F (3,000°C) to split water molecules. 

Potential Uses for Hydrogen

When properly stored, hydrogen as a fuel burns in either a gaseous or liquid state. Motor vehicles and furnaces can be converted to use hydrogen as a fuel. Hydrogen has actually been used in the transportation, industrial, and residential sectors in the United States for many years. Many people in the late 19th century burned a fuel called "town gas," which is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Several countries, including Brazil and Germany, still distribute this fuel. Hydrogen was used in early "hot-air" balloons, and later in airships (dirigibles) during the early 1900's. Gaseous hydrogen was used in 1820 as fuel for one of the earliest internal combustion engines. The U.S. Air Force had a secret, multi-million dollar program during the 1950's, code-named "Suntan," to develop hydrogen as a fuel for airplanes. Currently, industries use large quantities of hydrogen for refining petroleum, and for producing ammonia and methanol. The Space Shuttle uses hydrogen as fuel for its rockets. Automobile manufacturers have developed hydrogen-powered cars. 

Burning hydrogen creates less air pollution than gasoline or diesel. Hydrogen also has a higher flame speed, wider flammability limits, higher detonation temperature, burns hotter, and takes less energy to ignite than gasoline. This means that hydrogen burns faster, but carries the danger of pre-ignition and flashback. While hydrogen has its advantages as a vehicle fuel it still has a long way to go before it can be used as a substitute for gasoline. This is mainly due to the investment required to develop a hydrogen production and distribution infrastructure. 

However, things are getting started in this regard. Vehicle manufacturers Honda and BMW have set up hydrogen fueling stations as part of their efforts to develop fuel cell powered cars. At Honda's research and development center in Torrance, California, a PV array electrolyses hydrogen from water. The array generates enough hydrogen to power one fuel-cell vehicle. Additional power from the power grid is used to increase the hydrogen production capacity. The new station is supporting Honda's fuel cell vehicle development program for hydrogen production, storage, and fueling. Honda and a fuel cell developer are also working together on a "home" hydrogen refueling system for fuel cell vehicles. BMW opened a hydrogen fueling station at the company's engineering and emissions control test center in Oxnard, California. BMW is taking a different approach than most car companies, burning hydrogen directly in advanced internal-combustion engines, and is testing these vehicles at the Oxnard facility. 

The California Fuel Cell Partnership (CaFCP) is also building a hydrogen infrastructure. The CaFCP commissioned its first "satellite" hydrogen fueling system in late October 2002, in Richmond, California, about 70 miles from the CaFCP headquarters and a primary refueling facility in West Sacramento. This extends the range over which the CaFCP's prototype fuel cell vehicles can be driven. The fueling system uses electrolysis to generate hydrogen from water and includes a storage unit capable of holding 104 pounds (47 kilograms) of hydrogen. It is capable of fueling a small fleet of vehicles and requires only one or two minutes per refueling. 

In November 2002, the world's first hydrogen energy station that can provide fuel for vehicles and also produce electricity opened in Las Vegas Nevada. The station is located in the city's vehicle maintenance and operation service center. It combines an on-site hydrogen generator, compressor, liquid and gaseous hydrogen storage tanks, dispensing systems, and a stationary fuel cell. It is capable of dispensing hydrogen, hydrogen-enriched natural gas, and compressed natural gas. DOE is also working with the city to convert municipal vehicles to operate on hydrogen. 

Fuel cells are a type of technology that use hydrogen to produce useful energy. In fuel cells, electrolysis is reversed by combining hydrogen and oxygen through an electrochemical process, which produces electricity, heat, and water. The U.S. space program has used fuel cells to power spacecraft for decades. Fuel cells capable of powering automobiles and buses have been and are being developed. Several companies are developing fuel cells for stationary power generation. Most major automobile manufacturers are developing fuel cell powered automobiles. 

Hydrogen could be considered a way to store energy produced from renewable resources such as solar, wind, biomass, hydro, and geothermal. For example, when the sun is shining, solar photovoltaic systems can provide the electricity needed to separate the hydrogen (as described above regarding Humboldt State University's Research Center). The hydrogen could then be stored and burned as fuel, or to operate a fuel cell to generate electricity at night or during cloudy periods. 

Storing Hydrogen

In order to use hydrogen on a large scale, safe, practical storage systems must be developed, especially for automobiles. Although hydrogen can be stored as a liquid, it is a difficult process because the hydrogen must be cooled to -423° Fahrenheit (-253° Celsius). Refrigerating hydrogen to this temperature uses the equivalent of 25% to 30% of its energy content, and requires special materials and handling. To cool one pound (0.45 kg) of hydrogen requires 5 kWh of electrical energy. 

Hydrogen may also be stored as a gas, which uses less energy than making liquid hydrogen. As a gas, it must be pressurized to store any appreciable amount. For large-scale use, pressurized Hydrogen gas could be stored in caverns, gas fields, and mines. The hydrogen gas could then be piped into individual homes in the same way as natural gas. Though this means of storage is feasible for heating, it is not practical for transportation because the pressurized metal tanks used for storing hydrogen gas for transportation are very expensive. 

A potentially more efficient method of storing hydrogen is in hydrides. Hydrides are chemical compounds of hydrogen and other materials. Research is currently being conducted on magnesium hydrides. Certain metal alloys such as magnesium nickel, magnesium copper, and iron titanium compounds, absorb hydrogen and release it when heated. Hydrides, however, store little energy per unit weight. Current research aims to produce a compound that will carry a significant amount of hydrogen with a high energy density, release the hydrogen as a fuel, react quickly, and be cost-effective. 

A company in Utah, Power Ball Technologies, has developed a process in which sodium metal is pelletized and encapsulated with polyethylene plastic. The pellets can then be containerized, transported, and then opened in a patented hydrogen generator to produce hydrogen gas. According to the company, each gallon of these pellets is capable of producing 1,307 gallons of hydrogen gas, which is an equivalent hydrogen storage density more than 7 times greater by volume than a compressed hydrogen tank storing hydrogen at 3,000 psi. 

The Cost of Hydrogen

Currently the most cost-effective way to produce hydrogen is steam reforming. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, in 1995 the cost was $7.39 per million Btu ($7.00 per gigajoule) in large plant production. This assumes a cost for natural gas of $2.43 per million Btu ($2.30 per gigajoule). This is the equivalent of $0.93 per gallon ($0.24 per liter) of gasoline. The production of hydrogen by electrolysis using hydroelectricity at off peak rates costs between $10.55 to $21.10 per million Btu ($10.00 to $20.00 per gigajoule). 

Hydrogen Research in the United States

Recognizing the potential for hydrogen fuel, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and private organizations have funded research and development (R&D) programs for several years. DOE has a major effort to develop hydrogen as a major fuel within the next few decades. 

Types of Fuel Cells

Fuel cells are classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte they employ. This determines the kind of chemical reactions that take place in the cell, the kind of catalysts required, the temperature range in which the cell operates, the fuel required, and other factors. These characteristics, in turn, affect the applications for which these cells are most suitable. There are several types of fuel cells currently under development, each with its own advantages, limitations, and potential applications.

What are Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells?

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) evolved from work in the 1960's aimed at producing a fuel cell which would operate directly on coal. While direct operation on coal seems less likely today, operation on coal-derived fuel gases or natural gas is viable.

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Design and Operation

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells use a molten carbonate salt mixture as its electrolyte. The composition of the electrolyte varies, but usually consists of lithium carbonate and potassium carbonate. At the operating temperature of about 1200°F (650°C), the salt mixture is liquid and a good ionic conductor. The electrolyte is suspended in a porous, insulating and chemically inert ceramic (LiA102) matrix.

The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell reactions that occur are:

The anode process involves a reaction between hydrogen and carbonate ions (CO3=) from the electrolyte which produces water and carbon dioxide (CO2) while releasing electrons to the anode. The cathode process combines oxygen and CO2 from the oxidant stream with electrons from the cathode to produce carbonate ions which enter the electrolyte. The need for CO2 in the oxidant stream requires a system for collecting CO2 from the anode exhaust and mixing it with the cathode feed stream.

As the operating temperature increases, the theoretical operating voltage for a fuel cell decreases and with it the maximum theoretical fuel efficiency. On the other hand, increasing the operating temperature increases the rate of the electrochemical reaction and thus the current which can be obtained at a given voltage. The net effect for the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell is that the real operating voltage is higher than the operating voltage for the Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell at the same current density.

The higher operating voltage of the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell means that more power is available at a higher fuel efficiency from a Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell than from a Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell of the same electrode area. As size and cost scale roughly with electrode area, this suggests that a Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell should be smaller and less expensive than a "comparable" Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell.

The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell also produces excess heat at a temperature which is high enough to yield high pressure steam which may be fed to a turbine to generate additional electricity. In combined cycle operation, electrical efficiencies in excess of 60% (HHV) have been suggested for mature Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell systems.

The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell operates at between 1110°F (600°C) and 1200°F (650°C) which is necessary to achieve sufficient conductivity of the electrolyte. To maintain this operating temperature, a higher volume of air is passed through the cathode for cooling purposes.

As mentioned above, the high operating temperature of the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell offers the possibility that it could operate directly on gaseous hydrocarbon fuels such as natural gas. The natural gas would be reformed to produce hydrogen within the fuel cell itself.

The need for CO2 in the oxidant stream requires that CO2 from the spent anode gas be collected and mixed with the incoming air stream. Before this can be done, any residual hydrogen in the spent fuel stream must be burned. Future systems may incorporate membrane separators to remove the hydrogen for recirculation back to the fuel stream.

At cell operating temperatures of 1200°F (650°C) noble metal catalysts are not required. The anode is a highly porous sintered nickel powder, alloyed with chromium to prevent agglomeration and creep at operating temperatures. The cathode is a porous nickel oxide material doped with lithium. Significant technology has been developed to provide electrode structures which position the electrolyte with respect to the electrodes and maintain that position while allowing for some electrolyte boil-off during operation. The electrolyte boil-off has an insignificant impact on cell stack life. A more significant factor of life expectancy has to do with corrosion of the cathode.

The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell operating temperature is about 1200°F (650°C). At this temperature the salt mixture is liquid and is a good conductor. The cell performance is sensitive to operating temperature. A change in cell temperature from 1200°F (650°C) to 1110°F (600°C) results in a drop in cell voltage of almost 15%. The reduction in cell voltage is due to increased ionic and electrical resistance and a reduction in electrode kinetics. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) are currently being developed for natural gas and coal-based power plants for electrical utility, industrial, and military applications. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells are high-temperature fuel cells that use an electrolyte composed of a molten carbonate salt mixture suspended in a porous, chemically inert ceramic lithium aluminum oxide (LiAlO₂) matrix. Since they operate at extremely high temperatures of 650°C (roughly 1,200°F) and above, non-precious metals can be used as catalysts at the anode and cathode, reducing costs.

Improved efficiency is another reason Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells offer significant cost reductions over Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs). Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells can reach efficiencies approaching 60 percent, considerably higher than the 37-42 percent efficiencies of a phosphoric acid fuel cell plant. When the waste heat is captured and used, overall fuel efficiencies can be as high as 85 percent.

Unlike alkaline, phosphoric acid, and polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells don't require an external reformer to convert more energy-dense fuels to hydrogen. Due to the high temperatures at which Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells operate, these fuels are converted to hydrogen within the fuel cell itself by a process called internal reforming, which also reduces cost.

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells are not prone to carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide "poisoning" —they can even use carbon oxides as fuel—making them more attractive for fueling with gases made from coal. Because they are more resistant to impurities than other fuel cell types, scientists believe that they could even be capable of internal reforming of coal, assuming they can be made resistant to impurities such as sulfur and particulates that result from converting coal, a dirtier fossil fuel source than many others, into hydrogen.

The primary disadvantage of current Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell technology is durability. The high temperatures at which these cells operate and the corrosive electrolyte used accelerate component breakdown and corrosion, decreasing cell life. Scientists are currently exploring corrosion-resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell designs that increase cell life without decreasing performance.

What are Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells?

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells use liquid phosphoric acid as an electrolyte—the acid is contained in a Teflon-bonded silicon carbide matrix—and porous carbon electrodes containing a platinum catalyst. The chemical reactions that take place in the cell are shown in the diagram to the right.

The Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) is considered the "first generation" of modern fuel cells. It is one of the most mature cell types and the first to be used commercially, with over 200 units currently in use. This type of fuel cell is typically used for stationary power generation, but some phosphoric acid fuel cells have been used to power large vehicles such as city buses.

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells are more tolerant of impurities in fossil fuels that have been reformed into hydrogen than Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells, which are easily "poisoned" by carbon monoxide—carbon monoxide binds to the platinum catalyst at the anode, decreasing the fuel cell's efficiency. They are 85 percent efficient when used for the co-generation of electricity and heat, but less efficient at generating electricity alone (37 to 42 percent). This is only slightly more efficient than combustion-based power plants, which typically operate at 33 to 35 percent efficiency. Phosphoric acid fuel cells are also less powerful than other fuel cells, given the same weight and volume. As a result, these fuel cells are typically large and heavy. Phosphoric acid fuel cells are also expensive. Like Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells, Phosphoric acid fuel cells require an expensive platinum catalyst, which raises the cost of the fuel cell. A typical phosphoric acid fuel cell costs between $4,000 and $4,500 per kilowatt to operate.

What are Alkaline Fuel Cells?

Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs) were one of the first fuel cell technologies developed, and they were the first type widely used in the U.S. space program to produce electrical energy and water onboard spacecraft. These fuel cells use a solution of potassium hydroxide in water as the electrolyte and can use a variety of non-precious metals as a catalyst at the anode and cathode. High-temperature Alkaline Fuel Cells operate at temperatures between 100°C and 250°C (212°F and 482°F). However, newer AFC designs operate at lower temperatures of roughly 23°C to 70°C (74°F to 158°F)

Alkaline Fuel Cells' high performance is due to the rate at which chemical reactions take place in the cell. They have also demonstrated efficiencies near 60 percent in space applications.

The disadvantage of this fuel cell type is that it is easily poisoned by carbon dioxide. 
In fact, even the small amount of CO₂ in the air can affect this cell's operation, making it necessary to purify both the hydrogen and oxygen used in the cell. This purification process is costly. Susceptibility to poisoning also affects the cell's lifetime (the amount of time before it must be replaced), further adding to cost.

Cost is less of a factor for remote locations such as space or under the sea. However, to effectively compete in most mainstream commercial markets, these fuel cells will have to become more cost-effective. Alkaline Fuel Cells have been shown to maintain sufficiently stable operation for more than 8,000 operating hours. To be economically viable in large-scale utility applications, these fuel cells need to reach operating times exceeding 40,000 hours, something that has not yet been achieved due to material durability issues. This is possibly the most significant obstacle in commercializing this fuel cell technology.

What are Direct Methanol Fuel Cells?

Most fuel cells are powered by hydrogen, which can be fed to the fuel cell system directly or can be generated within the fuel cell system by reforming hydrogen-rich fuels such as methanol, ethanol, and hydrocarbon fuels. Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFCs), however, are powered by pure methanol, which is mixed with steam and fed directly to the fuel cell anode.

Direct Methanol Fuel Cells do not have many of the fuel storage problems typical of some fuel cells since methanol has a higher energy density than hydrogen—though less than gasoline or diesel fuel. Methanol is also easier to transport and supply to the public using our current infrastructure since it is a liquid, like gasoline.

Direct Methanol Fuel Cell technology is relatively new compared to that of fuel cells powered by pure hydrogen, and Direct Methanol Fuel Cell research and development are roughly 3-4 years behind that for other fuel cell types.

What are Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells?

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells - sometime called a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell —  deliver high power density and offer the advantages of low weight and volume, compared to other fuel cells. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells use a solid polymer as an electrolyte and porous carbon electrodes containing a platinum catalyst. They need only hydrogen, oxygen from the air, and water to operate and do not require corrosive fluids like some fuel cells. They are typically fueled with pure hydrogen supplied from storage tanks or onboard reformers.

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells operate at relatively low temperatures, around 80°C (176°F). Low temperature operation allows them to start quickly (less warm-up time) and results in less wear on system components, resulting in better durability. However, it requires that a noble-metal catalyst (typically platinum) be used to separate the hydrogen's electrons and protons, adding to system cost. The platinum catalyst is also extremely sensitive to CO poisoning, making it necessary to employ an additional reactor to reduce CO in the fuel gas if the hydrogen is derived from an alcohol or hydrocarbon fuel. This also adds cost. Developers are currently exploring platinum/ruthenium catalysts that are more resistant to CO.

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells are used primarily for transportation applications and some stationary applications. Due to their fast startup time, low sensitivity to orientation, and favorable power-to-weight ratio, Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells are particularly suitable for use in passenger vehicles, such as cars and buses.

A significant barrier to using these fuel cells in vehicles is hydrogen storage. Most fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) powered by pure hydrogen must store the hydrogen onboard as a compressed gas in pressurized tanks. Due to the low energy density of hydrogen, it is difficult to store enough hydrogen onboard to allow vehicles to travel the same distance as gasoline-powered vehicles before refueling, typically 300-400 miles. Higher-density liquid fuels such as methanol, ethanol, natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, and gasoline can be used for fuel, but the vehicles must have an onboard fuel processor to reform the methanol to hydrogen. This increases costs and maintenance requirements. The reformer also releases carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas), though less than that emitted from current gasoline-powered engines.

What are Protonic Ceramic Fuel Cells?

Protonic Ceramic Fuel Cells (PCFC) are a relatively new type of fuel cell is based on a ceramic electrolyte material that exhibits high protonic conductivity at elevated temperatures. 

Protonic Ceramic Fuel Cells share the thermal and kinetic advantages of high temperature operation at 700 degrees Celsius with molten carbonate and solid oxide fuel cells, while exhibiting all of the intrinsic benefits of proton conduction in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells and Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells. 

The high operating temperature is necessary to achieve very high electrical fuel efficiency with hydrocarbon fuels. Protonic Ceramic Fuel Cells can operate at high temperatures and electrochemically oxidize fossil fuels directly to the anode. This eliminates the intermediate step of producing hydrogen through the costly reforming process. Gaseous molecules of the hydrocarbon fuel are absorbed on the surface of the anode in the presence of water vapor, and hydrogen atoms are efficiently stripped off to be absorbed into the electrolyte, with carbon dioxide as the primary reaction product. Additionally, Protonic Ceramic Fuel Cells have a solid electrolyte so the membrane cannot dry out as with Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells, or liquid can't leak out as with Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells.


What are Solid Oxide Fuel Cells?

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) use a hard, non-porous ceramic compound as the electrolyte. Since the electrolyte is a solid, the cells do not have to be constructed in the plate-like configuration typical of other fuel cell types. Solid Oxide Fuel Cells are expected to be around 50-60 percent efficient at converting fuel to electricity. In applications designed to capture and utilize the system's waste heat (co-generation), overall fuel use efficiencies could top 80-85 percent.

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells operate at very high temperatures—around 1,000°C (1,830°F). High temperature operation removes the need for precious-metal catalyst, thereby reducing cost. It also allows Solid Oxide Fuel Cells to reform fuels internally, which enables the use of a variety of fuels and reduces the cost associated with adding a reformer to the system.

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells are also the most sulfur-resistant fuel cell type; they can tolerate several orders of magnitude more sulfur than other cell types. In addition, they are not poisoned by carbon monoxide (CO), which can even be used as fuel. This allows Solid Oxide Fuel Cells to use gases made from coal.

High-temperature operation has disadvantages. It results in a slow startup and requires significant thermal shielding to retain heat and protect personnel, which may be acceptable for utility applications but not for transportation and small portable applications. The high operating temperatures also place stringent durability requirements on materials. The development of low-cost materials with high durability at cell operating temperatures is the key technical challenge facing this technology.

Scientists are currently exploring the potential for developing lower-temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells operating at or below 800°C that have fewer durability problems and cost less. Lower-temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells produce less electrical power, however, and stack materials that will function in this lower temperature range have not been identified.

What are Regenerative Fuel Cells?

Regenerative Fuel Cells produce electricity from hydrogen and oxygen and generate heat and water as byproducts, just like other fuel cells. However, Regenerative Fuel Cells can also use electricity from solar power or some other source to divide the excess water into oxygen and hydrogen fuel—this process is called "electrolysis." This is a comparatively young fuel cell technology being developed by NASA and others.

About Us:

Renewable Energy Project Developers Providing Turnkey 
Solar Energy Systems Featuring our Super High Efficiency 
Solar Cogeneration & Solar Trigeneration Energy Systems

and

Solar Power Plants, including Concentrating Solar Power,
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Greenhouse Gas Emissions Market worth $2 Trillion 
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We Design/Engineer, Sell, Finance, Install, Operate and Maintain:
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You may qualify for our zero up-front cost 
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To receive our no cost, no obligation proposal, 
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2.  natural gas utility expenses (invoices)

Send the above via email to:  info@PowerPurchaseAgreement.com

PPA Funding for Power Purchase Agreements
and Solar Power Purchase Agreements
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Until our First PPA Round of Funding is Completed, we have 
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and Texas to Toronoto - All Solar Projects are with Clients that are 
Commercial, Industrial, Municipal or Utility Scale Projects - 
All With Excellent Credit and Backed with our PPA

Present IRRs for our Solar PPA Projects ranging from: 
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Over 18% with our proprietary Solar Cogeneration ^sm
and Solar Trigeneration ^sm Energy Systems 

Now, Over $100 million in Signed PPAs, Letters of Commitment 
and new Client Projects for our Solar Energy Systems - 
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Solar Power and Energy Services Include: 

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* No Cost Solar Cogeneration and 
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* Terms and Conditions for Free Solar Power System include: (1) For qualified commercial clients only. (2) Minimum size rating of 200 kW solar power system. (3) Minimum monthly electric usage requirements apply. (4) Subject to credit approval. (5) Other conditions may apply, depending on location, utility restrictions and regulations.  

We Help Our Commercial Clients - NATIONWIDE - Go Solar... 
Really Fast, Simple and Easy, with ZERO Upfront-costs 
(for qualified commercial clients) 
with our Solar Power Purchase Agreement

Providing project development services including;  Renewable Energy Investments, Project Finance (including Tax Equity Investment and Tax Equity Financing), and Funding of Power Purchase Agreements 

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Our Net Zero Energy Building^sm  upgrades "brown" buildings to "green" buildings, with our Solar Trigeneration^sm energy system, similar to one installed on a 5,000 sq. ft. office building that has been operating "dis-connected" from the electric grid for 6 years. And, the owners received one of the first Platinum LEED awards in the U.S.

Customers that could benefit from having their "brown" building upgraded to a "green" building with one of our Solar Trigeneration^sm energy systems include:

Casinos
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For many qualified commercial customers, we will install our Solar Trigeneration^sm energy system (or one of our other Solar Energy Systems) at your business....

with no up-front costs!

and sell the "pollution free power" power and energy to your business - for LESS than what you are presently paying your utility company/companies!

Whether your business purchases one of our solutions or we install - own - operate - and maintain the Solar Energy System solution on behalf of your business through our Power Purchase Agreement and sell the power and energy to your business at a discount - your business will have lower power and energy expenses while significantly reducing your greenhouse gas emissions.

For inquiries about one of our products and services, or help in making your business or facility a "Net Zero Energy"^sm business, contact us by email or phone:

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Now accepting resumes (by email only) for Independent Sales Representatives (ISR) that want to help customers convert their "brown" buildings to green, "Net Zero Energy Buildings" with one of our Solar Energy Systems.  Prospective ISRs must have a proven background in selling one or more of the following; 

Solar Energy Systems
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to Fortune 1000 companies.  

We supply the equipment, installation ( and financing through our Power Purchase Agreement for qualified commercial, municipal, government or utility clients with at least a 100 kW installation) and any rebates the customer may be entitled to. 

You supply the clients and if you are responsible for the sale, you will receive one of the highest industry commissions available. Protected territories available for top-performers. Please send resume (No phone calls) to: info@NetZeroEnergy.com

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For More Information About Power Purchase Agreements, Investment Tax Credits, Solar Tax Credits,  And Reducing or Eliminating Your Company's Carbon Emissions, or Upgrading your Company's Buildings/Facility with a Net Zero Energy Building Upgrade, call/email:

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Amazing Solar Fact!

Did you know that the silicon contained in only one ton of sand, 
and used in manufacturing solar photovoltaic panels, could 
produce as much electricity as burning 500,000 tons of coal?

_________________________________________________________

Our cogeneration and trigeneration energy systems exceed 85% net system efficiency. This translates into significant energy savings for our clients as well as reductions in greenhouse gas emissions.

We offer the following products, services and consulting services: 

• Automated Demand Response

• Biomethane

• Carbon Emissions Consulting & Solutions

• Carbon Free Energy

• Clean Energy Parks

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• Concentrating Solar Power

• Decentralized Energy

• Demand Side Management

• Distributed Generation

• Flywheel Energy Storage

• Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells

• Onsite Power Generation

• Micro-Grid Systems

• Net Zero Energy Buildings

• Peak-Shaving 

• Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells

• Pollution Free Power

• Renewable Energy Centers

• Renewable Energy Parks

• Solar Cogeneration

• Solar Electric Power Systems

• Solar Trigeneration

• Solar Water Heating Systems

• Thin Film Photovoltaics

• Trigeneration

• Waste To Energy 

• Waste to Fuel 

We provide our clients with comprehensive clean power generation solutions, including "carbon free energy" and "pollution free power" systems. 

Our clients benefit from our extensive experience and knowledge of issues relating to renewable energy, environmental and sustainability issues as well as implementing real world solutions that accomplish our client's goals and objectives.

We have been providing products, consulting services, information, education and solutions for reducing: 

Carbon Emissions (www.CarbonEmissions.com)

Carbon Dioxide Emissions (www.CarbonDioxideEmissions.com)

and Greenhouse Gas Emissions (www.GreenhouseGasEmissions.com) since 2003.  

No company is better prepared to help their clients in meeting these legal and environmental challenges with proven solutions that help save money through significantly lower energy expenses while simultaneously reducing or eliminating their Greenhouse Gas Emissions, or eliminating them entirely, than us!  

We are the pioneers of "Carbon Free Energy," "Pollution Free Power" and "Clean Power Generation" strategies and solutions that can completely eliminate your company's Greenhouse Gas Emissions.  Our solutions and strategies provide our customers with an integrated approach to today's climate challenges with real world solutions that solve these problems, while reducing energy expenses.

Why Choose Us?

We have proven solutions, products and services that can reduce or completely eliminate your company's Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Our staff and team has the technical expertise, depth of knowledge and affiliations with major universities that are on the cutting edge of research that is developing the solutions the world needs to solve these problems. And, we are taking these university solutions to market with products and services that solve the challenges and problems relating to climate change, fossil fuels and greenhouse gas emissions. In fact, we don't see these as problems any longer, but opportunities to help our clients get the jump on their competition, and our solutions are providing our customers with a sustainable, and durable competitive advantage.  

Frequently Asked Questions

How does our company receive credit for our early actions at reducing our Greenhouse Gas Emissions? 

Before taking action independently, companies should first contact us so that we can help them establish a Greenhouse Gas Emissions "inventory" which we can provide as a qualified third-party. 

What is the generally accepted format for sustainability reports?

At present, most companies are using the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) protocols as this provides for the "triple bottom line" reporting which includes social, economic and environmental performance measurements. We also line to include in our triple bottom line "people, planet and profit."

What are the benefits of verifying your company's Greenhouse Gas Emissions? 

1.  Satisfies regulatory compliance regulations as well as accounting regulations relating to accuracy in reporting to customers, stockholders and other company stakeholders.

2.  Prepare for present and future regulatory compliance - Cap and Trade is coming!

3.  Establishes a present-day baseline for receiving future Greenhouse Gas Emissions Credits when your company begins taking action to reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions. 

4.  Provides a blueprint and strategy for knowing how, where and when to begin reducing your company's Greenhouse Gas Emissions.

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Section 45 Tax Credits
Renewable Energy Tax Credits

Our renewable energy project development expertise has made us a leading authority of helping our clients with Section 45 Tax Credits.  Our company and our attorneys are skilled in the areas of renewable energy project finance and tax issues relating to renewable energy projects. We are able to assist our clients in connection with Section 45 tax credit project finance.

Our experience in Section 45 tax credits has helped us structure optimal renewable energy project solutions that match our clients unique economic and tax goals and requirements, which include regulatory constraints and regulatory compliance for most any state. 

Section 45 tax credits generate $.021 cents per kwh of electricity produced by the taxpayer and sold to an unrelated person or company. Section 45 tax credits are available for renewable electricity produced from certain renewable energy projects including, closed-loop biomass, open-loop biomass, geothermal power plants, solar energy, small irrigation power, municipal solid waste, and qualified hydro power production, refined coal and wind power generation.

See one of our following sites at: 

www.Section45TaxCredits.com   or  www.RenewableEnergyTaxCredits.com  

for more information or call:  (832) 758 - 0027 for more information

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What is a Power Purchase Agreement? 

A Power Purchase Agreement is a legal agreement wherein our clients agree to buy either the power (electricity) or the power and energy (hot water, steam and/or chilled water for air-conditioning) - or both - directly from us, for a term of 10 to 20 years, where we have installed, own and operate our solar energy systems. 

In nearly every case, once we have installed our solar energy systems at our client's facility, we can immediately reduce our (commercial) client's electricity expenses by 10% over what they were paying for their power electricity from their electric utility.

The right Power Purchase Agreement, solar cogeneration or solar trigeneration energy solution, may save your company hundreds of thousands, and possibly millions of dollars over the term of the agreement.  

Simultaneously, having the wrong or poorly drafted PPA can cost your company thousands or millions of dollars.  You wouldn't consult a brain surgeon to treat your child's broken bone!  Selecting the wrong attorneys, law firm or team to promulgate or re-negotiate your Power Purchase Agreement can leave you "powerless" and penniless - and still requiring the skills and expertise of competent and qualified professionals to resolve the situation. 

Because a Power Purchase Agreement is at the "heart" and underlying foundation of our projects, we can help your business with the selection and oversight of PPA's. 

We can help your city or community create a Municipal Utility District or Public Utility District that may then qualify for our very competitively priced energy and electricity rates. Now is the time for cities, municipal and governmental clients to consider having our company install one of our renewable power and energy systems that will generate "clean" power and energy, lower costs, and avoid the coming electricity shortages and grid congestion problems!  

Products and services provided by us include the following power and energy project development services: 

• Project Engineering Feasibility & Economic Analysis Studies  

• Engineering, Procurement and Construction

• Environmental Engineering & Permitting 

• Project Funding & Financing Options; including Equity Investment, Debt Financing, Lease and Municipal Lease

• Shared/Guaranteed Savings Program with No Capital Investment from Qualified Clients 

• Project Commissioning 

• 3rd Party Ownership and Project Development

• Long-term Service Agreements

• Operations & Maintenance 

• Green Tag (Renewable Energy Credit, Carbon Dioxide Credits, Emission Reduction Credits) Brokerage Services; Application and Permitting

What Is a Solar Power Purchase Agreement (SPPA)?

A Solar Power Purchase Agreement (SPPA) is a financial arrangement in which a third-party developer owns, operates, and maintains the photovoltaic (PV) system, and a host customer agrees to site the system on its roof or elsewhere on its property and purchases the system’s electric output from the solar services provider for a predetermined period. This financial arrangement allows the host customer to receive stable, and sometimes lower cost electricity, while the solar services provider or another party acquires valuable financial benefits such as tax credits and income generated from the sale of electricity to the host customer.

With this business model, the host customer buys the services produced by the PV system rather than the PV system itself. This framework is referred to as the “solar services” model, and the developers who offer Solar Power Purchase Agreements are known as solar services providers. Solar Power Purchase Agreement arrangements enable the host customer to avoid many of the traditional barriers to adoption for organizations looking to install solar systems: high up-front capital costs; system performance risk; and complex design and permitting processes. In addition, Solar Power Purchase Agreement arrangements can be cash flow positive for the host customer from the day the system is commissioned.

How do Solar Power Purchase Agreements Work?

Figure 1 below illustrates the roles of all participants in a Solar Power Purchase Agreement.

A host customer agrees to have solar panels installed on its property, typically its roof, and signs a long-term contract with the solar services provider to purchase the generated power. The host property can be either owned or leased (note that for leased properties, solar financing works best for customers that have a long-term lease). The purchase price of the generated electricity is typically at or slightly below the retail electric rate the host customer would pay its utility service provider. 

Solar Power Purchase Agreement rates can be fixed, but they often contain an annual price escalator in the range of one to five percent to account for system efficiency decreases as the system ages and inflation-related costs increases for system operation, monitoring, maintenance, and anticipated increases in the price of grid-delivered electricity. A Solar Power Purchase Agreement is a performance-based arrangement in which the host customer pays only for what the system produces. The term length of most Solar Power Purchase Agreements can range from six years (i.e., the time by which available tax benefits are fully realized) to as long as 25 years.

The solar services provider functions as the project coordinator, arranging the financing, design, permitting, and construction of the system. The solar services provider purchases the solar panels for the project from a PV manufacturer, who provides warranties for system equipment.

The installer will design the system, specify the appropriate system components, and may perform the follow-up maintenance over the life of the PV system. To install the system, the solar services provider might use an in-house team of installers or have a contractual relationship with an independent installer. Once the Solar Power Purchase Agreement contract is signed, a typical installation can usually be completed in three to six months.

An investor provides equity financing and receives the federal and state tax benefits for which the system is eligible. Under certain circumstances, the investor and the solar services provider may together form a special purpose entity for the project to function as the legal entity that receives and distributes to the investor payments from the sale of the systems kWh output and tax benefits.

The utility serving the host customer provides an interconnection from the PV system to the grid, and continues its electric service with the host customer to cover the periods during which the system is producing less than the site’s electric demand. Certain states have net metering requirements in place that provide a method of crediting customers who produce electricity on-site for generation in excess of their own electricity consumption. In most states, the utility will credit excess electricity produced from the PV system, although the compensation varies significantly depending on state polices.

Some of the above information from the Department of Energy and Environmental Protection Agency with permission.

More about Power Purchase Agreements

A Power Purchase Agreement is "behind" almost every power plant.  A PPA is a contract involving the generation and sales of electricity - which is normally developed between the owner of a power plant generating the electricity, and the buyer of the electricity. PPA's can be quite lengthy agreements that may exceed 100 pages in length and take several months to even 1-2 years to finalize.  

The basic information contained in a Power Purchase Agreement include the following items:

          * Definitions
          * Purchase and Sale of Contracted Capacity and Energy (such as steam, hot
             water and/or chilled water in the case of cogeneration and trigeneration
             plants
          * Operation of the Power Plant
          * Financing of the Power Plant
          * Guarantees of Performance
          * Penalties
          * Payments
          * Force Majeure
          * Default and Early Termination
          * Miscellaneous
          * T&C's

For more information about Power Purchase Agreements, call or e-mail us today. 
Tel. (832) 758 - 0027.

We develop renewable energy projects, and specialize in solar power and energy project development. Our company provides the total, turnkey solar energy system "in-house."  This means our capabilities and core competencies include solar project:

Our company provides the total, turnkey solar energy system design/engineering through installation, "in-house."  This means we provide the following; 

• project identification

• project analysis

• design/engineering

• finance (through investors and joint venture partners)

• installation or construction

• ownership (with PPA)

• operations

• maintenance and service or our solar energy systems

We have successfully completed "turnkey" installations of our solar energy systems for clients that include residential, commercial, industrial, and government.  Our present clients and projects include a large pipeline of solar energy systems projects that are now in design &/or under development or construction. Our present projects range in size from:

100 kW to 90 MW

We recently completed a 160 kW solar energy system for a major hotel wherein we self-funded their new "Rooftop PV System" with our Power Purchase Agreement.

Our solar power and energy project development services and capabilities include multiple solar technologies, including;

• Concentrating Solar Power 

• Concentrating Photovoltaic 

• High Concentration Photovoltaic

for utility scale solar power plant applications.

And our Super High Efficiency Solar Cogeneration & Solar Trigeneration Energy Systems:

• Solar Cogeneration Energy Systems  

• Solar Trigeneration Energy Systems

for commercial, government, industrial and municipal clients. 

What are "renewable energy resources?"

"Renewable energy resources" include; 

• Biomethane  

• B100 Biodiesel

• E100 Ethanol

• Hydrogen Fuel

• Solar Power & Energy (for homes and businesses)

• Synthesis Gas

• Utility Scale Solar Power Plants

• Wind Power Generation

What is "carbon free energy?"

"Carbon free energy" is energy that is produced or generated without producing any carbon dioxide emissions.  

Even nuclear power plants generate "carbon free energy."

Renewable energy technologies that are used in the production and generation of carbon free energy include;

• Anaerobic Digesters

• Biogas Plants

• Biodiesel Refineries

• Biomass Gasification

• Concentrating Photovoltaic

• Concentrating Solar Power

• Decentralized Energy

• Dispersed Generation

• Distributed Generation

• Distributed PV

• EcoGeneration

• Evacuated Tube Collectors

• High Concentration Photovoltaic

• High Voltage Direct Curent

• Hydrogen Fuel Cells

• Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells

• Net Zero Energy

• Net Zero Energy Buildings

• Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells

• Plasma Gasification

• Solar Absorption Cooling

• Solar Cogeneration  

• Solar Desalination (Clean Water and Clean Power!)

• Solar Electric Power Systems

• Solar Energy Systems

• Solar Heating And Cooling

• Solar Power And Energy

• Solar Thermal Collectors

• Solar Trigeneration

• Thin Film Photovoltaics

• Trigeneration

• Waste To Energy 

• Waste to Fuel 

Energy Efficiency Measures and Energy Conservation Measures such as Automated Demand Response and Demand Side Management and Energy Efficient Lighting, while not "generating" carbon free energy, provides significant increases in efficiencies, thereby reducing the overall need for energy, which may come from central power plants that are very inefficient and generate significant amounts of carbon dioxide emissions.

Even nuclear power plants generate "carbon free energy."   These are just some examples of carbon-free renewable energy. The purpose of all these methods is to combat the increase in greenhouse gas emissions and reduce our impact on the environment as a whole.

Solar Trigeneration^sm
www.SolarTrigeneration.com

We Do Solar Right ^sm

We install our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy Systems, for qualified commercial businesses, as well as  cities, schools and government facilities with our Zero Up-front Cost program.

For some customers - based on their present location, utility company and electric rate - we are able to reduce their electric rate by 10%. Even more for other customers.  Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy System!

We provide the answers to your questions about solar power and energy!

Does your; business, city, school, or electric utility want a more sustainable solar power and energy solution?

Are you interested in transforming your facility, campus or building(s) to "Net Zero Energy"™ buildings?

Does your city or school have a problem with rising electricity and energy expenses, but not have the financial resources to provide the necessary updates and upgrades to make your buildings more efficient?

Maybe you have already decided to go solar, but you have a lot of questions, and don't know where to start.  Call us, we have the answers to your solar questions.

What is the optimum solar solution?  There are hundreds of companies in the solar power and energy industry.....  Who do you call to help you with these questions to help you make the right decisions?

There's still more questions, that you may not have thought about..... which solar technology do you go with, and what is the return on investment? 

Are there any solar rebates, refunds, tax credits or other incentives available?

What about investors that might be interested in owning/operating and maintaining our solar energy system under a Power Purchase Agreement?

You have numerous questions and need the answers to help in the decision-making process regarding the solar power and energy system you want to install.  These decisions will have a long-lasting impact as the solar energy system that you install at your business or facility will probably be generating clean power for the next 40 to 50 years, if not longer!  So, the decisions that you need to make now regarding your solar energy system will be a decision that will be either a long-term asset or a liability, depending on the equipment you select and who you choose to install it. 

We can help cities, schools and commercial (and large residential) customers make the switch to solar!

And now, with our no up-front cost for our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy System, we can also transform your building(s) to a "Net Zero Energy Building"™ and many times, actually REDUCE your present energy expenses by 10%, and possibly more!

Examples of buildings/facilities where our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy Systems would benefit, include; universities, churches, data centers, shopping centers, schools, radio/television stations, food processing, warehouses, new real estate developments and subdivisions, and electric utilities - practically any commercial facility can be upgraded to one of our "pollution free power" systems featuring one of our solar energy systems,  including our Solar Trigeneration^sm system!

Call or email us, we can provide these answers. We are focused on providing the optimum solar energy systems for our clients. This begins with an initial review of your past 12 months energy/electrical bills. The next step would include a site visit which may include a Demand Side Management study and/or a Solar Feasibility Study which determines the optimum solar energy system for your facility or location.  Once the optimum solar solution(s) are determined, we then have a blueprint to proceed that could include our installing one of our Solar Cogeneration™ or Solar Trigeneration^sm energy systems.  Or for a city, real estate development or subdivision, or an electric utility, one of our utility scale power plants which might be a Concentrating Photovoltaic, Concentrating Solar Power or High Concentration Photovoltaic power plants.

What is "Net Zero Energy^sm?"

Net Zero Energy^sm - when applied to a home or commercial building, simply means that the home or buildings generates as much power and energy as they consume, when measured on a monthly or annual basis, and with an onsite, renewable energy system, such as our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy System. 

What is a Net Zero Energy Building^sm?

A Net Zero Energy Building^sm produces as much energy as it uses over the course of a year. Net Zero Energy Buildings^sm are very energy efficient. The remaining low energy needs are typically met with on-site renewable energy. 

First of all, understand that there is no such thing as a "zero energy building!" EVERY building uses energy, or you may as well be in a cave!  

The important considerations are, 

1.  How efficient is the building?  

2.  How much energy does the building use, and how efficiently is it used?  

3.  How much "carbon free energy" or "pollution free power" is generated by the buildings' own onsite renewable energy system?

4.  What are the utility company's prices for the excess power generated and sent to the grid? 
(see: Net Energy Metering)

5.  How difficult is it to interconnect the renewable energy system of the building with the utility company's powerlines/electric grid?   

At the heart of a Net Zero Energy Building^sm is the idea that any building can meet its energy requirements from low-cost, locally available, nonpolluting, renewable sources, like our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy Systems. Our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy Systems are the idea whose time has come, to make Net Zero Energy Buildings^sm commonplace.

Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy Systems Provide All of the Cooling, Heating & Power, for Any Size Building, with only the Energy of the Sun. Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy Systems Provide Simultaneous  Cooling, Heating & Power whether it is 12 Noon, or 12 Midnight,  and can do so, WITHOUT Connection to the electric grid!

The Diagram Below Shows How Our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy System Works, 
for Heating and Cooling a Building (next to the Solar Thermal Collectors, are the PV Panels, that generate the Electricity).

Our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy System
provides "Cooling, Heating & Power" for your business,
or home with the free energy of the sun!

What is Net Energy Metering?

Net energy metering is used to measure a customer's total electric consumption against that customer's total on-site electric generation.  When a customer's onsite generation of power exceeds the amount that they use, the customer's solar energy system (or other renewable energy system) exports the extra electricity to the grid.  When the power requirements of the customer exceeds their onsite generation of power, the customer imports the electricity they need from electric grid. The customer pays the electric company for any extra power they use over the amount they generate - OR -  the customer receives a credit or refund from the electric company if they exported more power to the grid, than what they consumed.  

Renewable Energy Is Necessary for Net Zero Energy Buildings

Much focus is placed on energy efficiency as the most cost-effective way to reduce energy use in commercial buildings. However, consumption can be reduced only so much. There is a point at which the cost of adding efficiency measures is higher than that of using renewable energy such as thin film photovoltaics and other solar energy systems. 

Aggressive energy efficiency strategies can reduce a building's energy consumption by 50% to 70%. Renewable energy technologies must be used to reach the goal of a net-zero energy building (NZEB).

Supply-Side Technologies

Various supply-side renewable energy technologies are available for Net Zero Energy Buildings. Supply-side technologies, often called energy producers, collect natural energy and transform it into a useful form. Examples of these technologies include PV, solar hot water, wind, hydroelectric, and biofuels.

Ranking of Energy Options

All renewable sources are favorable over conventional energy sources such as coal and natural gas; however, the U.S. Department of Energy recommends the following ranking for these options (the lower numbers are preferable):

This hierarchy is weighted toward renewable technologies within the building footprint and site. Rooftop PV and solar water heating are the most applicable supply-side technologies for Net Zero Energy Buildings. Other supply-side technologies such as parking lot-based wind or solar energy systems may be available.

The goal in developing the ranking was to encourage technologies that:

• Minimize overall environmental impact by encouraging energy-efficient building designs and reducing transportation and conversion losses

• Will be available over the lifetime of the building

• Are widely available and have high replication potential for future Net Zero Energy Buildings.

Solar Trigeneration^sm
www.SolarTrigeneration.com

Now, Your Business Can Have Our Solar Trigeneration™ 
Energy System, installed for No Up-Front Costs!

Through an affiliated partner company, we are now installing our Solar Trigeneration™ Energy Systems, for qualified commercial businesses, nationwide, with Zero up-front costs.

Some customers may even see a decrease in their energy expenses by as much as 10% to 20% with our Zero up-front cost Solar Trigeneration™ Energy System!

To qualify for our no up-front cost Solar Trigeneration Energy Systems, businesses must:

• Have a good credit rating

• Agree to buy all of the energy generated from the Solar Trigeneration™ Energy System through a 20 year Power Purchase Agreement

• Other conditions may apply, depending on location, state or utility company you are presently buying power from.

We expect ALL of our customers will be very happy knowing that the clean, green, renewable power they are using is: 

• More reliable than the electricity from the power company.

• Saving the environment by reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions and helping reverse Climate Change and Global Warming.

• Generated from their own reliable Solar Power System on their roofs.

• Saving Money!  At today's published electric rates at Southern California Edison, TXU, Reliant and Centerpoint, most of our customers will also enjoy a SAVINGS on their present electric bills by as much as 10% from what they are now paying for their electricity from the electric utility.

• Under warranty.

• At the end of the Power Purchase Agreement, the Solar Trigeneration™ Energy System is then offered for sale to our customers, for $1.00.  And then their energy savings really start to add up as the power and electricity generated from their Solar Trigeneration™ Energy System is free!

Our "Solar Trigeneration^sm" Power and Energy Systems
Generate Carbon Free Energy and Pollution Free Power
Which is Sustainable, Clean, Renewable and Affordable

Solar Energy Systems provides cooler, cleaner, greener power and energy project development services.  Our Solar Energy Systems are an environmentally-friendly and economically-superior choice to expensive natural gas and electricity. Additionally, our renewable energy technologies generate "green tags" or a Renewable Energy Credit.  

We provide Solar Power and Energy systems that we refer to as "EcoGeneration" solutions that produce cooler, cleaner, greener power and energy for our customers and our environment. Unlike most companies, we are equipment supplier/vendor neutral. This means we help our clients select the best equipment for their specific application. This approach provides our customers with superior performance, decreased operating expenses and increased return on investment. 

Our company provides turn-key project solutions that include all or part of the following: 

• Engineering and Economic Feasibility Studies 

• Project Design, Engineering & Permitting

• Project Construction

• Project Funding & Financing Options

• Shared/Guaranteed Savings program with no capital requirements. 

• Project Commissioning 

• Operations & Maintenance 

• Green Tag/Renewable Energy Credit Application, and Marketing

Net Zero Energy Buildings^sm
www.NetZeroEnergyBuildings.com

The Audubon Nature Center Installs Solar Trigeneration  System
Making this one of the World's First "Net Zero Energy Buildings"
at Their New Facility in Los Angeles, California

GRID-FREE SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEM....
NO CONNECTION TO THE ELECTRIC UTILITY!

The Solar Trigeneration  Provides All of their Facility's (5000 sq.ft.)
Cooling, Heating and Power Requirements - at 12 noon or 12 midnite,
WITHOUT ANY CONNECTION to the Electric Utility
with our Solar Trigeneration Energy System!  

The Sun Powers the Audubon Nature Center's Solar Trigeneration  
System at Debs Park in Los Angeles. The Audubon Nature Center's 
building is one of the world's first "Net Zero Energy Buildings." 
The Solar Trigeneration System Consists of a 10 Ton "Solar 
Absorption Cooling" System Matched with a Solar Electric 
Power System and a Solar Water Heating System

By:  Monty Goodell, MBA
www.SolarTrigeneration.com
Los Angeles, California

There is now a better, more efficient, “pollution free power” and "carbon free energy" solution for cooling, heating and powering homes and commercial buildings where solar energy is available. It's called Solar Trigeneration.

Solar Trigeneration is defined as the simultaneous generation of cooling, heating and power with only the free solar energy from the sun providing the "fuel". 

Solar Trigeneration is now a reality at the Audubon Center at Debs Park several miles from downtown Los Angeles and is one of the world's first "Net Zero Energy Buildings." Net Zero Energy Buildings." Net Zero Energy Buildings."

The Audubon Nature Center is totally powered by the sun’s energy and our Solar Trigeneration energy system!

The 5,300 square foot building operates entirely “grid-free” and without any electric connections to the electric grid, or natural gas connections – a truly sustainable power and energy solution. 

Best of all, the Audubon Center doesn’t rely on the over-burdened electric grid or even natural gas.  Therefore, the Audubon Nature Center NEVER receives an electric bill or natural gas bill.... ever!

The Audubon Nature Center's 5,000 square foot office and conference facility is powered by a Solar Trigeneration system that features a 25-kilowatt solar electric power system where the energy is stored in a bank of batteries. The Center is cooled by a 10-ton solar absorption cooling system powered by an array of very efficient solar heat pipe vacuum tube thermal collectors.  The collectors heat the water to temperatures of 200+ degree F stored in a 1,200 gallon insulated tank, another type of inexpensive battery. The Solar Trigeneration system at the Audubon not only provides the air-conditioning in the summer but also heats the building in the winter, and provides the hot water for the kitchen and bathrooms. 

Absorption chillers, and cooling with solar energy with an absorption chiller are not new technologies.  In fact, absorption chiller technology is over 70 years old.  The first refrigerators were powered by propane gas to run the absorption chillers that used ammonia as a refrigerant.  Electricity and the electric compression chiller gained popularity only because of the convenient “plug and play” appliance and relatively cheap electric rates.  Electricity is no longer economically, or environmentally “cheap.”

History of Cogeneration and Trigeneration

Few people realize that the world's first commercial power plant, designed and built by Thomas Edison, was a cogeneration power plant that was first opened on Pearl Street, in Lower Manhattan, New York.  That was in 1882!  Edison not only generated, and sold electricity in the several blocks surrounding his "Pearl Street Station" but he also sold the hot water that was also generated from the cogeneration plant. The fuel Edison used for generating the electricity and hot water (cogeneration) came from "pulverized coal." The Pearl Street Station provided 110 volts of "direct current" power to 59 customers in lower Manhattan, around his Pearl Street laboratory. 

Cogeneration is the simultaneous production of heat and power. 

Trigeneration is the simultaneous production of cooling, heating and power.

Our company, in partnership with the Renewable Energy Institute and our affiliated partners, have perfected "Solar Cogeneration" and "Solar Trigeneration" which are the "heart" of our Net Zero Energy Buildings.

Unlike traditional cogeneration and trigeneration power plants that are fueled by natural gas - and Thomas Edison's cogeneration plant, which was fueled with pulverized coal, our Solar Cogeneration and Solar Trigeneration energy systems are fueled with the energy of the sun!  And, while natural gas is a "cleaner" fuel, it still has its problems in that it is a limited resource and generates greenhouse gas emissions.  Natural gas also have had extreme price swings and has a history of price volatility.  Natural gas prices have gone from a high of $17.00/mmbtu to a recent low of under $3.00/mmbtu.  

Regarding pulverized coal, yes, it's cheap in terms of the cost of generating electricity, but too many people forget about the "externalities" of pulverized coal that is not reflected in the "cheap" costs of generating electricity from pulverized coal.  These costs not accounted for are the huge environmental cost relating to the use of pulverized coal.  Pound for pound, pulverized coal and coal fired power plants generate more greenhouse gas emissions than any other fossil fuel.  There are also the costs related to the health and safety issues of the miners that mine the coal.  And, the costs to the environment in terms of the ever-increasing amounts of mercury that are "dumped" into the environment from coal fired power plants, is also not reflected in the "cheap" price of generating power from pulverized coal.

Unlike the problems inherently found with the use of fossil fuels, Solar Cogeneration and Solar Trigeneration have no such problems. 

And talk about "cheap" costs of generating power and energy, there is nothing cheaper than free!!!!  

The owners of the Audubon Nature Center never receive any monthly natural gas or electric bills!

And the owners of the Audubon Nature Center will never have to account for their greenhouse gas emissions, or comply with the ever-increasing regulations related to greenhouse gas emissions and the pending Cap and Trade laws..... thanks to our  Solar Trigeneration energy system!

Solar Trigeneration is an EcoGeneration solution.  EcoGeneration refers to a power and energy system that uses the “natural” energy or fuel that is available for a specific site or location. Such energy or fuel includes, solar, wind, BioMethane, geothermal, and ocean power, including ocean tidal and ocean thermal energy conversion. For example, in the desert areas of the Southwestern U.S. , there is an abundance of solar energy. Therefore, home-owners and business owners in this part of the country should seriously consider an EcoGeneration system (“ecogen system”) that optimizes the opportunities available through solar energy

Today, the cause of the summer peak electric demand, electric supply problems, and black-outs, are the result of the energy crisis in California, primarily attributed to the air conditioning load. Over 40 percent of the electricity generated every day goes is used for air conditioning.  At this time of year, the electric utilities are forced to turn on all of their power plants to generate the “peak” demands required by the customers, primarily for air-conditioning.  This means that all of the efficient power plants, the inefficient power plants, along with all of the “peaking” power plants have to run to generate the electricity needed. The high cost of meeting the peak demand is passed on to the consumers with rates of $.20+ per kWh during the summer months. For fixed income seniors living in desert communities, they are already forced to conserve on energy, food, water, and other necessities of life. 

Greater Demands on California’s Limited Electric Supply, Lack of New Electric Power Supplies, and This Summer’s Heat Wave are Compounding the Problem Leading to the “Perfect Electric Storm”

Many people will remember the movie “The Perfect Storm” from several years ago, when several storms came together in the northeastern part of the U.S. to produce a deadly and catastrophic “perfect” storm. Today, a different type of “perfect storm” is brewing in California. The storm that’s looming on the horizon in California is a “perfect electric storm” wherein the supply of electricity from the electric utility company’s power plants are unable to keep-up with the demand – meaning a black-out, or loss of electricity, like the black-outs from previous years, and like the northeastern black-out from 2003.

The most likely time of year for a black-out in California, unfortunately, is the summer, when air-conditioners are running at the maximum, and placing the maximum load on California’s electricity supply.  Should such a black-out occur in the desert areas of California, where daily high temperatures routinely reach 110 degrees and higher, and where a significant percentage of the population is comprised of retired and senior citizens, and should the black-out be prolonged, a number of deaths will be the likely outcome. People, and especially the elderly, simply cannot tolerate prolonged high temperatures

How Do We Prevent the “Perfect Electric Storm” from Occurring in California and Other Regions in the U.S.?

Another major concern is how do we prevent the “Perfect Electric Storm” from happening, like the Northeast Blackout several summers ago, especially for people living in the desert?  California ’s energy authorities are warning of a possible energy crisis during the hot summer months, due to the excessive and prolonged summer temperatures where demand increases by over 40 percent.  Compounding the problem is the rising demand for electricity due to population growth and the limited transmission capacity in some areas in the region.  According to the California Energy Commission, the State must build three natural gas-fired 500-megawatt peaking power plants, every year, just to keep up with the growing demands of electricity. Failure to keep up with demand means The problem is getting worse due to the population growth in the Inland Empire , Coachella Valley and Antelope Valley. The projected power gap for the coming summers remains bleak.

Governor Schwarzenegger’s “Million Solar Roofs” program and the passage of the 2005 Federal Energy Act will be the foundation to create a “Perfect Solar Storm” to trigger the Solar Economy throughout California. 

With the threat of California’s seniors and elderly dying from heat exhaustion due to power outages, black-outs, rolling black-outs and the rising costs of electricity and natural gas, combined with the continuing impact of global warming, the perfect solution is to create a Solar Revolution by cooling, heating and powering the desert with solar energy and technologies like Solar Cogeneration or Solar Trigeneration.

For more information about Solar Energy Systems, such as Solar Cogeneration or Solar Trigeneration, call Monty Goodell at (832) 758 - 0027, or send an email to info@SolarTrigeneration.com.

The Audubon Center's new Solar Trigeneration power and energy system
makes this building a "Net Zero Energy Building"

The Audubon's Roof showing the Solar Thermal Collectors, part of the 
Solar Trigeneration power and energy system

The heart of the Audubon's Solar Trigeneration power and energy system
provides "free heating, cooling and domestic hot water," a "net zero energy building."

The hot water from the Solar Thermal Collectors on the roof of the Audubon is pumped here for producing the building's heating, cooling and domestic hot water.
Hot water is stored in the tank on the left for overnight.

_________________________________________________________________

Absorption Chillers 
&
Adsorption Chillers

For Solar Trigeneration Applications

What Absorption Chillers and How Does They Work?

Absorption chillers use heat instead of mechanical energy to provide cooling. A thermal compressor consists of an absorber, a generator, a pump, and a throttling device, and replaces the mechanical vapor compressor.

In the chiller, refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is absorbed by a solution mixture in the absorber. This solution is then pumped to the generator. There the refrigerant re-vaporizes using a waste steam heat source. The refrigerant-depleted solution then returns to the absorber via a throttling device. The two most common refrigerant/ absorbent mixtures used in absorption chillers are water/lithium bromide and ammonia/water.

Compared with mechanical chillers, absorption chillers have a low coefficient of performance (COP = chiller load/heat input). However, absorption chillers can substantially reduce operating costs because they are powered by low-grade waste heat. Vapor compression chillers, by contrast, must be motor- or engine-driven.

Low-pressure, steam-driven absorption chillers are available in capacities ranging from 100 to 1,500 tons. Absorption chillers come in two commercially available designs: single-effect and double-effect. Single-effect machines provide a thermal COP of 0.7 and require about 18 pounds of 15-pound-per-square-inch-gauge (psig) steam per ton-hour of cooling. Double-effect machines are about 40% more efficient, but require a higher grade of thermal input, using about 10 pounds of 100- to 150-psig steam per ton-hour.

In single-effect absorption chillers, all condensing heat cools and condenses in the condenser. From there it is released to the cooling water. A double-effect machine adopts a higher heat efficiency of condensation and divides the generator into a high-temperature and a low-temperature generator.

Actions You Can Take

Determine the cost-effectiveness of displacing a portion of your cooling load with a waste steam absorption chiller by taking the following steps:

• Conduct a plant survey to identify sources and availability of waste steam

• Determine cooling load requirements and the cost of meeting those requirements with existing mechanical chillers or new installations

• Obtain installed cost quotes for a waste steam absorption chiller

• Conduct a life cycle cost analysis to determine if the waste steam absorption chiller meets your company's cost-effectiveness criteria.

Absorption Chillers Refrigeration Cycle

The basic cooling cycle is the same for the absorption and electric chillers. Both systems use a low-temperature liquid refrigerant that absorbs heat from the water to be cooled and converts to a vapor phase (in the evaporator section). The refrigerant vapors are then compressed to a higher pressure (by a compressor or a generator), converted back into a liquid by rejecting heat to the external surroundings (in the condenser section), and then expanded to a low- pressure mixture of liquid and vapor (in the expander section) that goes back to the evaporator section and the cycle is repeated.

The basic difference between the electric chillers and absorption chillers is that an electric chiller uses an electric motor for operating a compressor used for raising the pressure of refrigerant vapors and absorption chillers use the heat for compressing refrigerant vapors to a high-pressure. The rejected heat from the power-generation equipment (e.g. turbines, microturbines, and engines) may be used with an absorption chiller to provide the cooling in a CHP system.

The basic absorption cycle employs two fluids, the absorbate or refrigerant, and the absorbent. The most commonly fluids are water as the refrigerant and lithium bromide as the absorbent. These fluids are separated and recombined in the absorption cycle. In the absorption cycle the low-pressure refrigerant vapor is absorbed into the absorbent releasing a large amount of heat. The liquid refrigerant/absorbent solution is pumped to a high-operating pressure generator using significantly less electricity than that for compressing the refrigerant for an electric chiller. Heat is added at the high-pressure generator from a gas burner, steam, hot water or hot gases. The added heat causes the refrigerant to desorb from the absorbent and vaporize. The vapors flow to a condenser, where heat is rejected and condense to a high-pressure liquid. The liquid is then throttled though an expansion valve to the lower pressure in the evaporator where it evaporates by absorbing heat and provides useful cooling. The remaining liquid absorbent, in the generator passes through a valve, where its pressure is reduced, and then is recombined with the low-pressure refrigerant vapors returning from the evaporator so the cycle can be repeated.

Absorption chillers are used to generate cold water (44°F) that is circulated to air handlers in the distribution system for air conditioning.

"Indirect-fired" absorption chillers use steam, hot water or hot gases steam from a boiler, turbine or engine generator, or fuel cell as their primary power input. Theses chillers can be well suited for integration into a CHP system for buildings by utilizing the rejected heat from the electric generation process, thereby providing high operating efficiencies through use of otherwise wasted energy.

"Direct-fired" systems contain natural gas burners; rejected heat from these chillers can be used to regenerate desiccant dehumidifiers or provide hot water.

Commercially, absorption chillers can be single-effect or multiple-effect. The above schematic refers to a single-effect absorption chiller. Multiple-effect absorption chillers are more efficient and discussed below.

Multiple-Effect Absorption Chillers

In single-effect absorption chillers, the heat released during the chemical process of absorbing refrigerant vapor into the liquid stream, rich in absorbent, is rejected to the environment. In a multiple-effect absorption chiller, some of this energy is used as the driving force to generate more refrigerant vapor. The more vapor generated per unit of heat or fuel input, the greater the cooling capacity and the higher the overall operating efficiency.

Double-effect absorption chillers uses two generators paired with a single condenser, absorber, and evaporator. It requires a higher temperature heat input to operate and therefore they are limited in the type of electrical generation equipment they can be paired with when used in a CHP System.

Triple-effect absorption chillers can achieve even higher efficiencies than the double-effect chillers. These absorption chillers require still higher elevated operating temperatures that can limit choices in materials and refrigerant/absorbent pairs. Triple-effect chillers are under development by manufacturers working in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Energy.

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What is "Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide?"

Copper Indium Gallium diSelenide (CuInSe2) is a material that provides an extremely high absorption of light ( 99%) to be absorbed in the first micron of the material. Copper Indium Gallium diSelenide is projected to be the revolutionary material that some are saying, could put typical "central" power plants and some electric utilities, out of business, as it will be much cheaper for customers to generate their own onsite power with Thin Film Photovoltaics made from these materials.   

When additional small amounts of Gallium is added to Copper Indium diSelenide, this increases its' light-absorbing band gap, thereby making the solar panel more closely match the solar spectrum of the sun.  This, in turn, increases the voltage and the efficiency of the Thin Film Photovoltaics solar panel. 

Solar panels produced with Copper Indium Gallium diSelenide cells have reached efficiencies of more than 20% - which is much higher than the other Thin Film Photovoltaics. 

Copper Indium Gallium diSelenide solar panels create more electricity from the same amount of sunlight than other Thin Film Photovoltaics panels.  This translates into a higher conversion efficiency. 

The conversion efficiency of Copper Indium Gallium diSelenide PV technologies is very stable over time, meaning its power output remains stable over many years, while the power output of many other PV materials can rapidly decline with time. 

What are "Building Integrated Photovoltaics?"

Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) are solar energy systems that are integrated into a part of the building, that serve as the building's exterior or the building's skin. 

Commercial buildings and facilities (including houses) that integrate their own solar power systems into the building's exteriors, are referred to as "power buildings."

The technology that makes this possible is "Thin Film Photovoltaics."

What are Thin Film Photovoltaics?

Without a doubt, the most exciting technology in the solar power industry is "Thin Film Photovoltaics."  Thin Film Photovoltaics technology represents the next big thing in renewable energy and solar power as it integrates nanotechnologies into the production of solar photovoltaics. 

According to the Department of Energy, the recent technological advances in thin film photovoltaics make this a very exciting time to be in the solar energy industry.  These advances have led to many new developments in the components and manufacturing of thin film photovoltaics. This has made thin film photovoltaics cheaper to manufacture as they are also now easier to install since they are extremely versatile, flexible, bendable, and much lighter.

Thin film photovoltaics  have led many to believe that as much as 50% of our nation's future power will be generated by "power buildings" that integrate "building integrated photovoltaics" or "BIPV" into the building's skin or exterior surfaces, that convert sunlight into "pollution free power" for use in the building.  This also designates these buildings (and homes) as "Net Zero Energy Buildings" and make the option for going grid-free, or not connecting to the grid, a real possibility.

According to the Department of Energy, the market potential for printed electronics will grow into a $47 billion market by 2018.  Thin film photovoltaics represents a significant portion of this market - and based on this heavily researched solar technology, thin film photovoltaics now represents a $20 billion/year industry in the U.S.

The solar PV panels produced under the thin film photovoltaics umbrella have the potential to produce power significantly cheaper power than today’s typical silicon-based PV panels.  The panels are usually made in the form of a monolithic piece of glass, upon which various thin films are deposited, although a number of firms are working on depositing the materials on a substrate, such as stainless steel or plastic.

Types of Thin Film Photovoltaics – there are primarily three types of thin film photovoltaics and include:

1. Amorphous Silicon

2. Cadmium Telluride

3. Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide

Amorphous Silicon had the largest share of the thin film photovoltaics market through 2006. It has been researched for the longest period of time, may be the best understood material of the three and has been commercial for the longest. Cadmium Telluride has the remaining share and is growing. 

Thin Film Photovoltaics Advantages over Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaics

• Lower cost of production of the 

• Lower production facility cost per watt - CapEx

• Uses as little as 1/500 of the amount used in standard silicon cells

• Lower energy payback – amount of time until the product produces more energy than was utilized in its manufacture.

• Produces more power/watt

• Superior performance in hot and cloudy climates

• Integrates seemlessly in homes and buildings – see Building Integrated Photovoltaics 

• Produces the lowest cost power

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About Us

We provide renewable energy engineering services and turnkey installations of our solar energy systems for commercial, municipal, government, schools and utility clients with projects located in the U.S., Canada Central America and the Caribbean. In many cases, we may also be able to provide project finance or investment. 

• Automated Demand Response

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Solar Electric Power Systems (PV)

Solar electric power systems transform sunlight into electricity. Sunlight is an abundant resource. Every minute the sun bathes the Earth in as much energy as the world consumes in an entire year. Solar cells employ special materials called semiconductors that create electricity when exposed to light. Solar electric systems are quiet and easy to use, and they require no fuel other than sunlight. Because they contain no moving parts, they are durable, reliable, and easy to maintain. How It Works Solar cells, also known as photovoltaic (PV) cells, do the work of making electricity. Several types of solar electric technology are under development, but four—crystalline silicon (a form of refined beach sand), thin films, concentrators, and thermophotovoltaics—are illustrative of the range of technologies. Solar cells are connected to a variety of other components to make a solar electric power system. Crystalline Silicon Crystalline silicon solar cells are used in more than half of all solar electric devices. Like most semiconductor devices, they include a positive layer (on the bottom) and a negative layer (on the top) that create an electrical field inside the cell. When a photon of light strikes a semiconductor, it releases electrons (see animation). The free electrons flow through the solar cell's bottom layer to a connecting wire as direct current (DC) electricity. Some solar cells are made from polycrystalline silicon, which consists of several small silicon crystals. Polycrystalline silicon solar cells are cheaper to produce but somewhat less efficient than single-crystal silicon. A simple silicon solar cell can power a watch or calculator. However, it produces only a tiny amount of electricity. Connected together, solar cells form modules that can generate substantial amounts of power. Modules are the building blocks of solar electric systems, which can produce enough power for a house, a rural medical clinic, or an entire village. Large arrays of solar electric modules can power satellites or provide electricity for utilities. Solar Electric Power System Components In addition to modules, several components are needed to complete a solar electric power system. Many systems include batteries, battery chargers, a backup generator, and a controller so that people in solar-powered homes and buildings can turn on the lights at night or run televisions or appliances on cloudy days. Grid-connected systems don't require batteries or backup generators because they use the grid for backup power. Some remote system applications, such as those used to pump water, do not require a backup power source. Components of a typical standalone PV system using crystalline silicon technology. (Source: Solar Electric Power Association) Solar electric power systems can incorporate inverters or power control units to transform the DC electricity produced by the solar cells into alternating current (AC) to run AC appliances or sell to a utility grid. Complete systems usually include safety disconnects, fuses, and a grounding circuit as well. Thin Films Solar electric thin films are lighter, more resilient, and easier to manufacture than crystalline silicon modules. The best-developed thin-film technology uses amorphous silicon, in which the atoms are not arranged in any particular order as they would be in a crystal. An amorphous silicon film only one micron thick can absorb 90% of the usable solar energy falling on it. Other thin-film materials include cadmium telluride and copper indium diselenide. Substantial cost savings are possible with this technology because thin films require relatively little semiconductor materials. Thin films are produced as large, complete modules, not as individual cells that must be mounted in frames and wired together. They are manufactured by applying extremely thin layers of semiconductor material to a low-cost backing such as glass or plastic. Electrical contacts, antireflective coatings, and protective layers are also applied directly to the backing material. Thin films conform to the shape of the backing, a feature that allows them to be used in such innovative products as flexible solar electric roofing shingles. Concentrators Concentrators use optical lenses (similar to plastic magnifying glasses) or mirrors to concentrate the sunlight that falls on a solar cell. With a concentrator to magnify the light intensity, the solar cell produces more electricity. Today, most solar cells in concentrators are made from crystalline silicon. However, materials such as gallium arsenide and gallium indium phosphide are more efficient than silicon in solar electric concentrators and will likely see more use in the future. These materials are now used in communications satellites and other space applications. Concentrators produce more electricity using less of the expensive semiconductor material than other solar electric systems. A basic concentrator unit consists of a lens to focus the light, a solar cell assembly, a housing element, a secondary concentrator to reflect off-center light rays onto the cell, a mechanism to dissipate excess heat, and various contacts and adhesives. The basic unit can be combined into modules of varying sizes and shapes. Concentrators only work with direct sunlight and operate most effectively in sunny, dry climates. They must be used with tracking systems to keep them pointed toward the sun. Thermophotovoltaics Thermophotovoltaic (TPV) devices convert heat into electricity in much the same way that other PV devices convert light into electricity. The difference is that TPV technology uses semiconductors "tuned" to the longer-wavelength, invisible infrared radiation emitted by warm objects. This technology is cleaner, quieter, and simpler than conventional power generation using steam turbines and generators. TPV converters are relatively maintenance-free because they contain no moving parts. In addition to using solar energy, they can convert heat from any high-temperature heat source, including combustion of a fuel such as natural gas or propane, into electricity. TPV converters produce virtually no carbon monoxide and few emissions. They may be used in the future in gas furnaces that generate their own electricity for self-ignition (during power outages) and in portable generators and battery chargers. Advantages Solar electric systems offer many advantages. Standalone systems can eliminate the need to build expensive new power lines to remote locations. For rural and remote applications, solar electricity can cost less than any other means of producing electricity. Solar electric systems can also connect to existing power lines to boost electricity output during times of high demand such as on hot, sunny days when air conditioners are on. Solar electric systems are flexible. Solar electric modules can stand on the ground or be mounted on rooftops. They can also be built into glass skylights and walls. They can be made to look like roof shingles and can even come equipped with devices to turn their DC output into the same AC utilities deliver to wall sockets. These advances mean individual homeowners and businesses can relieve pressure on local utilities struggling to meet the increasing demand for electricity. More than 30 states offer grid-connected solar electric system owners the chance to save money on their energy bills by feeding any excess power their solar electric system produces into the utility grid—an arrangement called net metering. Solar power systems require minimal maintenance. They run quietly and efficiently without polluting. They are easy to combine with other types of electric generators such as wind, hydro, or natural gas turbines. They can charge batteries to make solar electricity continuously available. For utilities, large-scale solar electric power plants can help meet demand for new power generation, especially in distributed applications. A solar electric power plant is created from multiple arrays that are interconnected electronically. Solar electric plants are easier to site and are quicker to build than conventional power plants. They are also easy to expand incrementally—by adding more modules—as power demand increases. Solar electric power systems are good for the environment. When solar electric technologies displace fossil fuels for pumping water, lighting homes, or running appliances, they reduce the greenhouse gases and pollutants emitted into the atmosphere. The use of solar electric systems is particularly important in developing nations because it can help avert the expected increases in emissions of greenhouse gases caused by the growing demand for electricity in those countries. Solar electric technologies also benefit the U.S. economy by creating jobs in U.S. companies. Exporting solar electric technologies to developing nations expands U.S. markets while protecting the global environment. Disadvantages Although solar electric systems make financial sense in remote areas that lack access to power lines, they are usually more expensive than fossil fuels for grid-connected applications. This disadvantage is significant for utilities considering large-scale solar electric power plants. Although solar electricity costs considerably more than electricity generated by conventional plants, regulatory agencies often require utilities to supply electricity for the lowest cash cost. Utilities view solar electric power plants differently than they view conventional power plants. Solar electric modules produce electricity intermittently—only when the sun shines. Their output varies with the weather and disappears altogether at night. Integrating solar electricity into a utility system requires creative planning. Applications A combination of solar electric arrays and pool-heating solar collectors were used to provide power and heat to the Georgia Tech University Aquatic Center, site of the 1996 Olympic swimming competition. (Credit: Heliocol) Solar electricity has powered satellites since the dawn of the space program. It has run remote communications outposts high in the mountains and turned on the lights, kept medicines cold, and pumped water in rural areas for more than 30 years. Small solar cells are used to power wristwatches, calculators, and other electronic gadgets. More recently, solar electric systems have been used to provide supplemental power to homes and commercial buildings in cities. Solar electric technology has important roles to play in both the developing and developed worlds. From the farmer irrigating his crops in rural Mexico to an innovative lighting system for an Olympic sports arena, solar electric solutions abound. Electric utilities harness solar electricity for distributed applications—near substations or at the end of overloaded power lines, for example, to avoid or defer costly line upgrades. They use solar electricity during hot, sunny periods when the demand for air conditioning stretches conventional power generation to its limit. The Sacramento Municipal Utility District, for example, uses large solar electric arrays as part of its power generation mix. Utilities also rely on solar electricity to power remote, standalone monitoring systems. Consumers and builders are integrating solar electric modules into their homes and offices. Innovative solar electric technologies can replace conventional roofing and facade materials in new buildings. Solar electric roofing shingles, for example, are being used in some new residences. In grid-connected applications, solar electricity supplies some of a consumer's energy needs; the local utility provides the rest. Standalone solar electric systems power a variety of applications far from the reaches of the power grid. These applications include remote communications systems such as television and radio transmitters and receivers, telephone systems, and microwave repeaters. Standalone solar electric power is also used to prevent corrosion of metal pipes, tanks, bridges, and buildings. Many remote residences worldwide use solar electricity as their source of power. For instance, more than 100,000 vacation homes in Scandinavia rely solely on solar electric technology to run lights and appliances. Villages around the world are building solar electric systems to bring electricity to their homes and local industries, often for the first time. To make the maximum use of available resources, village power is typically produced by a hybrid power system that combines solar electricity with diesel backup generators and sometimes another renewable energy technology such wind power. Villages also use standalone solar electric systems for pumping water—an application shared by rural farmers and ranchers in the United States.

How we make and distribute electricity is changing! 

The electric power generation, transmission and distribution system (the electric "grid") is changing and evolving from the electric grid of the 19th and 20th centuries, which was inefficient, highly-polluting, very expensive and “dumb.”  

The "old" way of generating and distributing energy resembles this slide:

How To Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions

You can easily and affordably reduce or eliminate your company's "carbon footprint." 

Did you know that the United States Congress will be passing the S. 2191 "Cap and Trade" Law in 2009?  Did you know that Supreme Court ruled in April (2008) that the EPA already has the authority to regulate Greenhouse Gas Emissions?  Cap And Trade narrowly passed in the U.S. House of Representatives, and is now in the U.S. Senate, who has threatened to make even greater reductions of Greenhouse Gas Emissions in their final Bill of the Cap And Trade legislation. 

Are you ready for these new regulations?  We can help you get ready!

According to Monty Goodell, the Founder and Chairman of the Renewable Energy Institute, “Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Carbon Dioxide Emissions will be the world’s biggest commodity market and will probably soon be the world’s largest market, period." In fact,  Mr. Goodell anticipates that Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Carbon Dioxide Emissions will become one of the fasting-growing commodities and markets ever.

Every day, leading companies are spending millions of dollars going "GREEN" and reducing their Greenhouse Gas Emissions.

The Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Carbon Dioxide Emissions Market Potential is staggering!  According to a recent New York Times article, carbon trading is one of the “fastest-growing specialties in financial services.” 

Already, Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading and International Carbon Trading markets are worth in excess of $50 billion/year. The United Nations expects this market to be valued in excess of $2 Trillion/year by 2012 and others are saying this could easily exceed $5 Trillion/year within the next several years!

DO THE MATH on the Carbon Dioxide Emissions market! 

You may be wondering, how can such a relatively new commodity grow so rapidly?  Here in the USA, 40 billion tons of Carbon Dioxide Emissions are produced every year. At the present price of $50 per ton of carbon dioxide, the Carbon Dioxide Emissions market is valued at $2.0 Trillion (40 billion tons of Carbon Dioxide Emissions x $50.00/ton).

How to Reduce Your Carbon Footprint

Carbon Emissions, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Greenhouse Gas Emissions can be reduced or completely eliminated with renewable energy technologies, such as our Solar Energy Systems - including our super high efficiency Solar Cogeneration and Solar Trigeneration energy systems.  Brown buildings can be upgraded in to green buildings and  "Net Zero Energy Buildings" through the products and services that we offer.  

Qualified commercial, government, industrial and municipal clients can affordably have one of our Solar Cogeneration and Solar Trigeneration energy systems installed, with ZERO up-front costs, with our Power Purchase Agreement.  Call (832) 758 - 0027 to learn more and find out if your business qualifies.

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Monty Goodell, Founder and President of the Renewable Energy Institute, along with the Renewable Energy Institute's Scientific Advisory Board, which is comprised of several of our nation's leading experts, engineers, attorneys, professors and universities, is calling for our nation and all 50 states to adopt a Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) of at least 25% by 2025.

And even better than a Renewable Portfolio Standard, according to Mr. Goodell, is a "Feed In Tariff," which is the route Germany took, and why they have had such great success in their transition to a solar based economy. The fastest paths to jump-start the renewable energy industry, is through a "Feed In Tariff.

A Feed In Tariff is superior to a Renewable Portfolio Standard," according to Mr. Goodell.  "For example, look at Germany's success in their transition to an economy based on the installation of solar energy systems, they adopted a Feed In Tariff, are further north from the Equator than we are here in the U.S., and they are placing solar panels on every rooftop and wind turbine generators throughout their country. They are leading the world in renewable energy technologies, primarily due to their early adoption of a Feed In Tariff"

What is a Feed In Tariff? 

A Feed In Tariff is a utility rate that is established by a state or federal government, that requires a utility to pay higher electricity rates for green electricity generated by the owners of the solar energy systems, whether that is a homeowner or business owner. Feed In Tariffs shifts the expenses of subsidizing green energy from taxpayers, to electricity ratepayers. Feed In Tariffs also include guarantee that the Feed In Tariffs' artificially higher rates, will continue for periods as long as 25 years.  

Germany's great success for jump-starting the solar energy industry there, first established Feed In Tariffs in 1999.  Germany now has about five times as many solar photovoltaic panels installed as the United States - even though their total combined installations of PV panels  still only account for about 0.5% of the electricity generated there. 

"So, we go with a Feed In Tariff in lieu of a Renewable Portfolio Standard.  Simultaneously, we need to start re-building our national electric grid, and transforming it into 'Transmission Superhighway' or 'Unified Smart Grid' and dramatically increase the nation's power supply as well as implement greater use of 'Energy Efficiency Measures' - also referred to as Energy Conservation Measures.  And we need to implement "real" 'Demand Side Management' programs.  Failure to move in these areas and to do so immediately increases the risks to our country, our national security and the climate" according to Mr. Goodell. 

According to Mr. Goodell, our nation is at a crossroads and we have been 'over the Middle Eastern barrel of their fossil fuels' long enough. We must shift from energy dependence to energy independence and place significant emphasis and investments in our national energy security and lower greenhouse gas emissions.    

Renewable energy, and only renewable energy provides the significant economic and environmental dividends our country now needs.  Preferably, our fledgling renewable energy  industry in the U.S., will be "jump-started" with a Feed In Tariff.  

Some of the economic and environmental dividends that renewable energy will provide our country include:

• Creation of more than 3 million new jobs in the U.S..

• Generate more than $1 trillion in economic impacts

• Eliminates or Reduces Carbon Emissions and Greenhouse Gas Emissions

• Significant reductions of oil imports

• Reduce energy prices and save consumers as much as $50 billion on their energy bills

• Elimination of billions of pounds of carbon dioxide emissions and other greenhouse gas emissions

• Stimulate rural economies

• Conserve natural gas supplies 

• Creates a clean, safe energy future

• Position the US as a world leader in renewable energy technologies

The renewable energy industry, single-handedly, provides a powerful argument and solutions for these problems. 

Global warming and climate change are symptoms of a sick planet and the results of unrestrained "dumping" of huge amounts of pollution - in the form of carbon dioxide emissions and greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere.

The vast majority of carbon dioxide emissions and greenhouse gas emissions comes from "dirty" fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) used in making electricity at power plants and dirty fuels (gasoline and petroleum diesel) that run our internal combustion engines in our cars, trains, planes, and trucks. Our planet is home to millions and millions of internal combustion engines that run on dirty fossil fuels - whether they are fueled with gasoline for running our cars and lawnmowers or running on diesel fuel in the engines of trucks and ships like the very large crude carriers that transport the crude oil all around the world...... every internal combustion engine that is running on dirty fossil fuels is dumping millions and millions of tons of carbon dioxide emissions and greenhouse gas emissions into our atmosphere - which is aggravating and exacerbating our sick planet - and making manmade climate change and global warming more difficult to resolve through manmade remedies and solutions.

"Finally, the fact that over 60% of the gasoline we use every day in our cars comes from foreign countries - should be the "clarion call" that jump-starts the renewable energy industry here in the U.S." said Mr. Goodell.

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Why We Need The "Unified Smart Grid" 
or "Transmission Superhighway"

According to Monty Goodell, the Chairman and Founder of the Renewable Energy Institute, "our country desperately needs to upgrade its' national electric grid.  The grid of today is a relic from the past, that is inefficient and costly.  Originally built in the 1930's, it is costing our nation approximately $120 billion every year due to its' outdated and out-lived existence.  The national power grid as designed and built in the 1930's does not have the efficiencies and capabilities to keep pace with the national power grid's demands of today." 

"What we need" according to Mr. Goodell, is what former Vice President Al Gore calls a "Unified Smart Grid" or what we prefer to call a "Transmission Superhighway."

A Transmission Superhighway would be buried underground and "wheels" or transmits the renewable power ("green electricity") from the wind farms of the midwest, and solar farms of the southwest, and geothermal farms of the west, to load centers throughout every corner of the U.S."

According to many estimates, the "Unified Smart Grid" or "Transmission Superhighway" could be built for about $400 billion.  Through its' increased efficiencies, savings and reliability improvements that it will provide, the nation's new "unified smart grid" will be paid in full, in less than 4 years. 

The carbon clock tracks total carbon dioxide emissions in metric tons since 1750.

Since 1750, humans have emitted over 5 trillion pounds of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Roughly half of this has ended up in the oceans where it is beginning to damage the coral reefs. The other half is still in the atmosphere and causing global warming. Each pound of CO2 takes up as much space as a 500 pound person.

The formula (which should be good for a year or two) is:
C(t) = 2.58 ×1012 + 1240×t, where t is seconds since the start of 2007.

C is tonnes (metric tons) of carbon dioxide emissions.
2205 x C gives pounds of carbon dioxide emissions.

That comes to over 43 billion tons/year or over 86 trillion pounds/year.

Carbon dioxide (2) = 1 carbon atom with 2 oxygen atoms.
Carbon has relative weight 12 and Oxygen 16.
So it takes only 12 pounds of carbon to make 12+16+16 = 44 pounds of CO2. 

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Greenhouse Gas Emissions Linked to 
the Loss of a "Few" Polar Bears

Monty Goodell, MBA
Founder and Chairman
Renewable Energy Institute

The Renewable Energy Institute (REI) does not take a stand in the debate on global warming, and if there is global warming, is it "anthropogenic" or is it caused by the sun, or the sun's normal cycles?  Or, if there really is " climate change," is it " global cooling" caused by the water vapor in the atmosphere?

At the Renewable Energy Institute, we are waiting for the "true" scientists who doing the real research, to provide us with the science and answers critically needed to formulate correct policy - and not the phony " scientists" who are following politically-motivated and profit-driven agendas of the United Nations and government leaders. These phony scientists are not interested in conducting real scientific research.  Their very livelihoods are dependent on the government grants to fund their phony research that have pre-determined conclusions before and "research" is conducted.  

Political-interference by governments, governmental agencies, and bureaucrats that hand out billions of tax-payers dollars to phony scientists to conduct "junk science" and research,  expect the conclusions that supports anthropogenic global warming, or climate change. 

When scientists conclude in their research that they find no evidence of anthropogenic climate change or global warming, they are summarily dismissed, and black-balled from their communities and colleagues, and never again receive funding or grants.  Grants and funding by government bureaucrats with politically-driven agendas to "scientists" expecting their pre-determined results and conclusions supporting anthropogenic global warming must stop.

According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), in 2007

• the solar industry received $198 million in subsidies.

• the oil and natural gas industry collected $2.1 Billion in tax-payer subsidies.

• the coal industry coal received $3.2 Billion in tax-payer subsidies.

And since 1960:

• the nuclear industry has received nearly $70 billion in tax-payer incentives and tax-payer subsidies. 

Taxpayers have bankrolled the oil and gas industry, and the coal industry for 100 years now, and the nuclear industry for 50 years, to keep these dirty fuels and energy "cheap." Take away the tax-payer incentives and tax dollars, and we believe the real cost of gasoline, would be similar to the gasoline cost in Europe - $7.00 - $8.00/gallon!

In the meantime, our U.S. Military is spending billions of tax-payer dollars each year protecting the Straits of Hormuz where much of the world's crude oil is produced and shipped through the straits' international shipping lanes.  Each day, hundreds of "very large crude carriers" pass through the Straits of Hormuz carrying oil from OPEC and the Middle-East to the U.S. and many other countries. 

Isn't it time we take some of the tax-payer dollars supporting the nuclear, coal and oil and gas industries, and start incentivizing clean, renewable energy technologies that don't pollute or harm the environment in any way?  Isn't it time that America ends its reliance on non-sustainable energy sources and stop over $1 billion every day, to oil suppliers from foreign countries, and start putting this money in "solar on every rooftop?!?

Mercury Emissions from Coal Fired Power Plants Far More Harmful to the Planet and People than Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Regarding the harm being caused to our planet from energy use, far more harm is being done to the planet, as well as to people and plants and animals, particularly fish, from the mercury emissions from coal fired power plants than from the coal fired power plants' greenhouse gas emissions.  We surmise that if any polar bears have died as a result of an environmental problem, it was more likely from the high levels of mercury in their food chain, than from greenhouse gas emissions. 

The Renewable Energy Institute is supporting and advancing renewable energy technologies, as well as reducing and eliminating greenhouse gas emissions and the fossil-fuel problems related to America's oil addiction and ending our dependence on foreign oil.  The renewable energy technologies we support are already deemed to be economic, viable and practical. Solutions such as Solar Trigeneration energy systems (see www.SolarTrigeneration.com for more information) for any kind of facility or building - office buildings, shopping centers, data centers, university campuses, etc. 

Since 2003, a Solar Trigeneration energy system has been providing 100% of the power and energy for a 5,300 sq. ft. office building near downtown Los Angeles, and doing so without any connection to the electric grid, whether its 12 noon or 12 midnite!  

The Renewable Energy Institute is also involved in research and advocacy of "Net Zero Energy" (see: www.NetZeroEnergy.com for more information) and "Net Zero Energy Buildings" (see:  www.NetZeroEnergyBuildings.com for more information).  Net Zero Energy Buildings generate as much (or more) energy than they use, and export their excess power to the grid, which we believe needs to be updated into a "Transmission Superhighway."

Climate Change, Global Warming or Global Cooling?

The past 10 years indicates the opposite of "global warming" has occurred - that the "Earths Fever" has and that global cooling has taken place. 

Weather, on a daily basis, or even an annual basis, is not climate, and climate is not weather. 

"Climate change" is always taking place, from one day to the next, and one week to the next, as well as one year to the next. The planet's climate is an ever-evolving, changing and dynamic process.  

Again, researchers and scientists need to refrain from being political, and stay out of politics, and politicians need to stay out of the way of the scientists and researchers, and let them do their work.  Politicians, government leaders and bureaucrats scientists need true and accurate data and climate research from scientists that do not have a political agenda.

In the meantime, as there may still be 30 years of research before there are conclusive answers concerning anthropogenic climate change, can we "risk" 30 years of our children and grand children's future, should there is a link between climate change and greenhouse gas emissions?  Should we not err on the side of caution?

Hubbert's Peak Oil Predictions Now Proving True?

Marion King Hubbert was a geologist and scientist who worked at Shell Oil company's research lab in Houston, Texas.  Hubbert made several important contributions to geology, geophysics and petroleum geology.  Hubbert is most recognized for the "Hubbert Curve" and " Hubbert Peak Theory" which is now referred to as " Peak Oil. 

Hubbert's life work determined that the world has a finite amount of petroleum that can be produced.  (Similarly, there is a finite amount of coal.) Many scientists and engineers believe we have reached Hubbert's "peak oil" limit.  Hubbert's espouses that when 50% of domestic crude oil production has been reached, that there will be such significant upward demand on prices of the limited supplies of oil production, that the U.S. economy will experience severe economic, social, and political turmoil.

Hubbert's Peak Oil predictions have proven to be true and this is validated as the U.S. in the early 1970's produced about 60% of its' oil demand and imported 40%.  That equation has flipped since then, because our domestic oil production has been on the decline since 1970, so now, due to our declining domestic oil production, we have to import 60% of our oil supplies, to meet our country's oil/energy demands.

The Next Oil Shock Could be the "mother" of All Oil Shocks

How severe our economic calamity and next "oil shock" will depend upon a number of factors, including when this occurs, as well as the following:

1.  the dependence of the individual country upon its own crude oil production to meet its energy needs and to subsidize consumer imports; 

2.  the rate of relative decline in crude oil production; 

3.  the degree of difficulty encountered in replacing missing energy inputs; 

4.  the degree to which our country had prepared in advance for this inevitable geological and economic calamity.

Examples of past "oil shocks" and the economic and political calamities that followed:

United States: Our peak crude oil production of domestic oil occurred in 1970; the first "oil shock" and oil crisis followed in 1973 with the Arab/OPEC Oil Embargo.

Iran: Their peak crude oil production occurred in 1974; They had their islamic revolution 1979 that overturned government and replaced it with radical islam.

Soviet Union: Their peak crude oil production was in 1989; what happened next? 
Their country disintegrated and the collapse of the Soviet Union followed in 1991. 

Indonesia: Their peak crude oil production was in 1991; their financial and government crisis followed in 1997.

Iraq: Iraq's crude oil production was in 1989; they then invaded Kuwait (for their oil) in 1991.

Using Mr. Hubbert's predictions, that beginning around 2000  we would see peak (global) oil production, then, if the country's not weaning themselves off of their oil addiction, and had not begun making the switch to renewable energy, that the negative economic and political calamities would soon follow, including ever-increasing prices of energy that is from fossil fuels. 

Now is the time to begin weaning ourselves off of fossil fuels and making the transition to and increasing the use of renewable energy. If you don't believe in climate change, or global warming, GREAT! Join us in the switch to renewable energy and a fossil-free economy!

America's "Clear and Present Danger"

America Has INCREASED its' Dependence on Foreign 
Sources of Energy by 50% Since 1973.

America is even more "addicted" to foreign oil today, than we were in 1973 - 1974 when OPEC, Saudi Arabia and other suppliers from the Middle-East  stopped selling us their fossil fuels, and created a significant blow to our economy.

This Means that 65% of America's Energy Supplies are Now Imported from Suppliers from Foreign Countries.  

Simply put, about 65% of the gasoline in your car's gas tank, comes from a foreign country.

EVERY day, the U.S. must IMPORT over 13 million bbls of oil from foreign countries and foreign suppliers to meet demand. 

At $80/barrel of oil, this also means that $1,040,000,000.00 American Dollars leave our country, EVERY DAY, to foreign countries/suppliers of our fossil fuels, to pay for the energy we need. 

That's $1 Billion EVERY day leaving our economy, and going to support a foreign country's economy. 

Talk about our foreign trade deficit..... nearly $400 Billion each year, leaves our country to pay for our oil addiction and the energy we need.  To be exact, that's $379,600,000,000.00 American Dollars.

This is NOT acceptable.

America needs to quickly transition to Energy Independence. 

Renewable Energy is the Only Way America Can Achieve Energy Independence. 

Millions of new and sustainable American jobs would be created here at home, if we would end our addiction to foreign fossil fuels, and quickly transition to an economy based on renewable energy and renewable fuels, produced here in the U.S.A. 

The good news is that today, America already has all of the Renewable Energy Resources and Renewable Energy Technologies needed to make American Energy Independence a reality. 

According to Monty Goodell, Founder and Chairman of the Renewable Energy Institute, "our increased dependence and reliance on foreign energy supplies represents a Clear and Present Danger to our national security, our economy, and the lives and livelihood of every American. Energy - including the energy we use from imported fossil fuels, is the very "lifeblood" of the American economy as it is for every industrialized country.  An economy dies without it's lifeblood of energy. This Clear and Present Danger we face is far more serious than the problems related to greenhouse gas emissions.  And while greenhouse gas emissions are very serious issue, in the long-term, pales in comparison to America's vital national security interests and America's economic stability in the short term.  For this reason alone, America needs to transition away from its addiction to foreign energy supplies. And America's abundant renewable energy resources such as the energy we receive from the sun, and renewable energy technologies such as concentrated solar power (CSP) plants - can supply 100% of America's power requirements with a concentrating solar power plant measuring 75 miles by 75 miles, located in the Southwest U.S.  By generating America's power from concentrating solar power plants, America resolves its' short-term Clear and Present Danger as it relates to importing its energy from foreign countries, and the long-term problems relating to greenhouse gas emissions."

Continuing, Mr. Goodell states that "too many Americans have forgotten what happened to us in 1973, when the Arabs and OPEC brought the United States economy to a screeching halt during the OPEC Oil Embargo.  This happened because they (mainly the country of Saudi Arabia) disagreed with our foreign policy and is the reason why they "turned off the tap" of our need for their oil supplies. When Saudi Arabia and OPEC stopped the vital flow of oil to our country in 1973, they caused an "oil shock" that severely and negatively impacted our economy. 

Mr. Goodell's question for us to ponder is, "do these countries who sell us 60% of our daily energy requirements, like us and our foreign policy, or might they leverage our addiction to their fossil fuels, and turn off the tap to make us adjust or revise our foreign policy??  Like any addict, America's foreign policy may be held hostage to its addiction, and in this case, our addiction to foreign oil, may over-ride our national interests."

Have American's forgotten the gas shortages and long lines at 
their gas stations to get gas during the Arab Oil Embargo of 1973? 

"Apparently so."  Mr. Goodell states that "in 1973, America was 'addicted' and 'over the barrel' of foreign oil to the amount of 40%.  Forty percent of our energy 'needs' in 1973 came from countries - many of which didn't like us then, and I'm afraid, many of them still don't.  The difference between 1973 and today - is that today we receive 50% MORE foreign oil now than we did in 1973.  And now we know about the problems relating to greenhouse gas emissions that we didn't know then.  America needs to change course, and change course now, in terms of its' energy supplies and how we keep America's economy strong, without the threat of being held hostage to a middle-east tyrant or regime, that could once again, turn on us, and turn off our supply of foreign oil." 

Remember ????

" Sadly," Monty Goodell continues, " most Americans have forgotten the long lines of people waiting in their cars - lined up and waiting for gasoline at their nearby gas station, with lines that were many blocks long.  And, after waiting 4-5 hours, many even waiting overnight in many places, to finally take their turn to fill up their car with gasoline, only to find that the gas station had run out of gas." 

"Let me Repeat.... That was 1973 when we imported 40% of our daily energy requirements in the form of crude oil from overseas, and from foreign countries - and many of these from countries that don't like us.

Today, over 35 years later, America has yet to learn the lesson.  We cannot continue our reliance on energy from foreign countries that supply us with 60% of the crude oil that our refineries use as a feedstock for producing gasoline and diesel fuel for our cars and trucks comes from overseas. 

America is "over the barrel" and it's not our barrel, but the barrels of oil that we are addicted by and owned by other countries.  Why have we not learned the lessons we needed to learn in 1973 when we were cut-off from the vital energy supplies we need? 

Countries like China, are growing rapidly, and have an insatiable need for crude oil. China, with their booming economy, is increasingly growing in its clout and control over international supplies of crude oil - whether they do this through their ability to buy as much oil as they need on a daily basis, or whether they simply but American drilling rigs, technology, and explore and produce oil and gas from their own fields. China, is buying large amounts of oil for their country, and causing upward pricing on declining supplies. What happens if Russia, with all of their oil and natural gas, along with China and Venezuela, with or without the help of OPEC, decided to NOT sell oil to us????

To be sure, greenhouse gas emissions are a problem, and to some, greenhouse gas emissions are also a Clear and Present Danger, but not to the extent that it presents an imminent Clear and Present Danger. 

America's reliance for 60% of our energy "needs" coming from foreign suppliers is un-acceptable.

The "driver" to get America to begin reducing and eliminating fossil fuel use should be our nation's national security and the welfare and safety of its citizens. And this can all begin with developing and investing in our own renewable energy resources and renewable energy technologies, let's start by putting solar on every rooftop that has a clear and unobstructed view of the Southern sky. See www.RooftopPV.com  or  www.DistributedPV.com  for more information.  Let's create incentives begin with adopting a national "Feed In Tariff" as Germany did in 1990. 

We simply do NOT have the luxury of time on our hands.  We need to end our dependence and reliance on foreign fossil fuels, especially from countries that don't like us! We need to rapidly begin expanding renewable energy resources and renewable energy technologies from our vast and abundant renewable energy resources, such as; solar, solar energy systems, solar cogeneration, solar trigeneration, "solar on every roof," along with; Biomass Gasification, B100 Biodiesel, Biomethane, E100 Ethanol (from cellulosic, agricultural waste, sugar cane, etc., and NOT from corn), Geothermal Power Plants, Natural Wastewater Treatment, Synthesis Gas, Waste To Energy, Waste To Fuel and Wind Power Generation where it makes economic and environmental sense."   

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* end America's dependence on oil from OPEC and other countries in the Middle-East, Venezuela and end our need for importing natural gas from Russia.

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